• Before we had computers, refrigerators, and modern medicine, we had people performing tasks that we now take for granted.
• Jobs like ice cutters and knocker-ups sound ridiculous to us now, but people once relied on these jobs to pay for their homes and food.
• Some of the jobs, like leech collectors and the groom of the stool, are every bit as bizarre as they sound.
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

Jobs and industries come and go.

In 2014, The Economist predicted that robots are going to replace telemarketers, accountants, and retail workers, and Bill Gates has said that software bots will take even more jobs.

This isn't the first time that whole swaths of the labor market have gone extinct: The Industrial Revolution did away with gigs that your great-great-grandparents might have had that sound preposterous to us today.

Read more:15 unconventional jobs that pay surprisingly well

Using the Bureau of Labor Statistic's occupational classification list from 1850 and some research of our own, we found several bizarre (and now extinct) occupations that were once a part of daily life.

SEE ALSO: 10 quotes from ancient thinkers that show they figured life out 2,000 years ago

DON'T MISS: 12 truly bizarre jobs that don't exist in America

Knocker-up

How did people get up for work before alarm clocks? Easy — they hired a knocker-up to tap on or shoot peas at their windows at an appointed time. 

This profession became popular in Britain and Ireland in the early 19th century, continuing well into the Industrial Revolution. According to the BBC, some areas in industrial Britain still had a couple of knocker-ups as late as the 1970s.

A knocker-up (or knocker-upper) usually carried a bamboo stick — sometimes several feet long — to tap on high-up windows, waking workers. The task was mostly performed by older men and women as a way of making extra cash. 

But who woke the knocker-ups? They were reportedly nocturnal to begin with.

"The knocker-uppers were night owls and slept during the day instead, waking at about four in the afternoon," author Richard Jones told the BBC.

Pinsetter

Before mechanical pin setters were invented in 1936, boys were hired to set bowling pins after they were knocked down — they were called pinsetters.

Luckily, when mechanical pinsetters made bowling more efficient by reducing wait times between turns, attendants were still kept around to clean the machines and fix any jams before more advanced machines were patented.

Badger

Back when the farmer's market was just the market, people called badgers would buy produce from the farmer, bring it to market, and sell it to the customer.

While people still sell goods in open-air markets all over the world, the term "badger" was more popular in Britain. It was still in use in America up until around the Civil War.

Linguists think the phrase "badger someone" came from their relentless salesmanship — either that, or the occupation derives from "bagger," someone who carries a bag.

Leech collector

Back when medicine was in its "let's just bleed the patient" phase, people called leech collectors would cull leeches from the ground with animal legs and then sell them to doctors.

This practice was common in the 18th and 19th centuries in both Britain and America — bloodletting via leeches was thought to release the patient of bad humors that made them sick. 

To attract leeches from swampy water, leech collectors would lead old horses into the water, then pick off the fresh leeches that would fix themselves onto their skin. If they didn't have any horses, they'd simply use their own legs.

Resurrectionist

In a similarly unsavory case of early medicine, resurrectionists would dig corpses out of graveyards and sell them to medical schools. The practice became especially popular in Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Naturally, resurrectionists weren't well-regarded by British society, who preferred to call them "body snatchers." Eventually, the British government had had enough of bodies being stolen from cemeteries everywhere, so they let doctors have access to their workhouse dead — the deceased people who lived in workhouses for the poor.

Powder monkey

Powder monkeys existed long before child labor laws did. 

If you were a young boy between the ages of 12 and 14 on a warship back in the seafaring days, your quick hands would be called upon to stuff gunpowder back into cannons. Poor working-class boys had no choice but to join these voyages, which were extremely dangerous. A cannon blast from an enemy ship could mean instant death or a sunken ship.

Computer

"Computer" used to be somebody's title. Before electronics took over, these workers — usually women — would convert figures and crunch other numbers by hand. They literally computed.

They worked in a variety of fields — including engineering at NASA— until they were replaced in offices by what we know today as computers, beginning as early as the 1970s.

Phrenologist

Before it was dismissed as pseudoscience, lots of people went to phrenologists, who could "read" their intelligence and determine traits by the shape of their head.

Phrenology gained traction in the 19th century, especially in Edinburgh, Scotland, where the Edinburgh Phrenological Society was founded in 1820. It also became a convenient basis for racism— a way to "scientifically" prove that whites were the superior race.

Despite the ridiculous notion that feeling bumps on people's heads to diagnose psychological issues works, phrenology influenced modern psychology. Today, neuroscientists know what certain parts of the brain are responsible for, and psychologists have a much better understanding of how our thoughts and emotions work.

Lector

Factory workers needed a little entertainment to distract them from their mindlessly repetitive tasks, so a lector would read news and literature aloud to them.

According to Mashable, cigar factory workers would even pitch in portions of their weekly salary to fund their lectors. Some instances where a lector would be removed by the company led to thousands of workers going on strike.

Ice cutter

Before you could get ice from your fridge, you had to cut it from a lake. You'd hire an ice cutter to do so.

In the 19th century, crews of up to 75 men could harvest 1500 tons of ice in a single day before transporting it across the country via train.

People in some parts of the US had never seen ice in such large quantities being shipped from city to city. But thanks to loose snow or a bit of sawdust, and modern technology, workers could keep large quantities of ice from melting for hours. 

With the refrigerator and the freezer becoming household items in the mid-20th century, however, ice cutters were no longer needed.

Milkman

Before everyone had refrigerators, it was difficult to keep milk from going bad. So you'd need it delivered regularly by your milkman.

Milkmen were ubiquitous in Britain, America, and other countries for much of the 20th century. They came almost every morning and left milk on doorsteps, much like a paper boy would with a newspaper. But with home refrigeration, this profession has all but disappeared.

Chimney sweep

Chimney sweeps cleaned out the chimney soot that built up over time. If you've ever seen "Mary Poppins," you probably have an idea of what one looks like. The reality, however, was much harsher.

Chimney sweeps would regularly inhale harmful smoke from fires, get stuck in chimneys, get cancer from too much soot, and, of course, get burned frequently.

Daguerreotypist

Before we had digital photography, or even negatives, we had daguerreotypes, the earliest kind of publicly available photograph. These images on polished silver were made by dedicated daguerreotypists.

By the late 1860s, however, daguerreotypes were already falling out of fashion as cheaper methods were developed, including modern film photography.

Rat catcher

Rat catchers snagged the disease-carrying rodents that once ran rampant in residential neighborhoods.

With the outbreak of the Black Plague, which raged on and off throughout Europe for centuries, rat catchers were crucial for a community's health and the safety of their food supplies.

Today's equivalent to the rat catcher is the exterminator, who deals with much more than just rats.

Quarryman

A quarryman would extract stone from the earth that may be used for various construction purposes, like a kitchen counter. 

The job was dangerous, involving intense manual labor and occasional maiming or death due to accidents like runaway railway wagons or falling stone.

Groom of the stool

This occupation, oddly enough, may be one of the most high-ranking ones on this list. 

The groom of the stool was an advisor to the English king. Or, to put it more bluntly, he spoke with the king while the king sat on the toilet. There were dozens of these esteemed advisors throughout English history.

With each passing groom, the position became more powerful, until the groom of the stool was more of an advisor on fiscal policy than a mere confidant in the commode.

Vivian Giang contributed to a previous version of this article. 

• Asking for time off at work can be an intimidating task. 
• Joseph Grenny, co-founder of VitalSmarts and co-author of "Crucial Conversations," has seven tips to help you get the vacation days you deserve.
• The key is to have explicit conversations with your boss so you know what's expected of you, both in how much time you can take off,and your role at work during your time off.
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

With summer winding down, there's probably one thing a lot of workers are thinking about: using up those remaining vacation days.

Paid leave is essential for employees who need a break from their daily grind. Time off relaxes and replenishes workers, and improves productivity when they return to the job.

According to US Travel, average vacation days in America began to decline in 1993, from around 20 days used per year to an all-time low in 2014 of 16.2 days used per year. Since then, however, Americans have taken more paid time off, bringing the average up to 16.8 days used per year.

Despite the increased time off, America is nowhere near Europe's generous vacation policies. According to a column in the Economist, European workers typically get much of August off, while Americans struggle with the idea of taking a week off here and there. But such short vacations are not always healthy, says the magazine. A simple long-weekend trip "risks adding to the stress, as a high proportion of the vacation period is spent travelling to and from the desired destination. No sooner do you arrive than you have to think about packing for the trip back."

Some people dread asking for time off, and assume taking less time off is expected of them, according to Joseph Grenny, co-founder of VitalSmarts and co-author of The New York Times best-seller, "Crucial Conversations."

Grenny spoke to Business Insider about the best ways to ask for PTO, and how to get it.

SEE ALSO: Your vacation is stressing out your millennial coworkers, and social media is only making it worse

1. Have an explicit discussion with your boss

One of the most important aspects, according to Grenny, is having explicit conversations where you find out exactly what's expected of you.

When Grenny started VitalSmarts three decades ago, he knew that he and his three co-founders would be racing to be the guy who worked the hardest. "We'd look at each other 20 years later and have our kids calls us 'Uncle Dad,'" Grenny said. "We didn't want that, so we had a very explicit discussion early on."

Make sure to have an open discussion with your employer about how much time off is expected from employees, and if workers are required to answer emails while they're away.

2. Make sure you know what the company's expectations are

Grenny warned that many employees take less time off because they assume it's the norm, and as a result, they let their vacation days go to waste.

"You need to figure out what you're comfortable with, and conversations are the vehicle for establishing expectations with others," said Grenny. "If you don't let [your boss and coworkers] express it to you explicitly, sometimes you hold yourself to a standard that they don't expect, and you end up taking less advantage of some of these generous policies than you could."

3. Ask guardrail questions

If you're a new hire, asking general questions about vacation time can help you out later on when it's time to ask for time off yourself.

Grenny gave sample questions to ask your boss: "How does it typically work? What do people typically do? Can you give examples of people who have abused it? So now I know what both normal looks like and what abuse looks like, and I can find my way in between those two guardrails."

4. Watch for norms

Watching for norms is one of the easiest ways to figure out the right time and place for asking for PTO.

"See if you can get a sense for what the norms are for the people around you," said Grenny.  "What kind of rhythms do they use? What lengths of vacation? How much time away?"

According to Grenny, it's important to make a mental note of how present other employees are while they're on vacation. "What boundaries does the workplace tend to honor in terms of when you're out? Are you really out, or do they intrude on your time for conference calls and for brief tasks?"

5. If you're a new hire, earn social capital

If you're new to the workforce, or if you're a new hire, make sure you're asking for PTO once you've earned it.

Grenny emphasized the importance of earning your place in the company before going on vacation. "I think it is important to be sensitive to earning social capital before you draw down on it," he said. "So if you're brand new and you're asking for a month off to go and traipse around Europe, you ought to expect what people are going to wonder about your level of commitment to the workplace. Realize that the first thing you need to demonstrate is that you care about the problems, issues, and concerns of the workplace. And once you've demonstrated that, then you have something to draw down on."

6. Assume that your company wants you to take time off

As Americans take more and more days off each year, Grenny argues that there's no need to leave your vacation days untouched.

"I think the norm these days is that people want you recharged," he said. "People recognize that we're complex human beings. For many of us [work] is a 24/7 thing because electronics intrude so much in our lives, so when we're away, we need to be away."

7. Don’t race to the bottom

Grenny described his past experience with the dangers of observing norms without talking directly to the boss, where employees took less and less time off, thinking they were benefiting the company. Grenny called this a "race to the bottom."

"I've worked with many senior leaders in organizations that realize that they have a toxic culture that grinds people down, and that they need to have boundaries of going out and rejuvenating themselves," he said. "People are operating on assumed norms rather than actual norms."

• Attending college is expensive, especially for families taking out thousands of dollars in student loans.
• Thankfully, there are dozens of affordable public and private schools that offer financial aid to students in need.
• We compiled the 50 best colleges for your money, according to Niche, with MIT landing the top spot.
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

As another college semester is set to begin, students are getting ready to pick courses, find the right residence hall, and buy dorm supplies. Their parents, meanwhile, have already taken out their checkbooks, or maybe even thousands of dollars in student loans.

Attending a four-year university requires a long-term financial commitment, which sometimes lasts for decades. Some families are forced to take out student loans, but they never see a return on their investment. Other families let their children skip college altogether to join a trade school. And according to experts, college tuition is only going to keep rising.

Thankfully, some private universities offer generous financial aid packages, while many states offer financial aid to resident students in need. We looked at Niche.com's ranking for the best value schools, which measures value based on tuition, net price (the average cost after financial aid for students receiving grant or scholarship aid), and average income of alumni six years after graduating. The schools with only one tuition rate listed are private, and the schools with both in-state and out-of-state tuition are public.

Here are the 50 best colleges in America for your dollar.

SEE ALSO: The best public high schools in every US state

50. Michigan Technological University — Houghton, Michigan

Tuition price: 

In-state: $15,346

Out-of-state: $33,426

Net price: $17,139

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $64,700

49. Virginia Tech — Blacksburg, Virginia

Tuition price: 

In-state: $13,230

Out-of-state: $31,014

Net price: $18,700

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $60,500

48. Clarkson University — Potsdam, New York

Tuition price: $47,950

Net price: $31,050

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $68,900

47. University of Chicago — Chicago, Illinois

Tuition price: $55,425

Net price: $34,834

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $65,500

46. Johns Hopkins University — Baltimore, Maryland

Tuition price: $52,170

Net price: $29,066

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $69,800

45. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute — Troy, New York

Tuition price: $51,000

Net price: $37,648

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $77,900

44. Worcester Polytechnic Institute — Worcester, Massachusetts

Tuition price: $48,628

Net price: $43,027

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $82,600

43. Massachusetts Maritime Academy — Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts

Tuition price: 

In-state: $8,398

Out-of-state: $25,824

Net price: $14,538

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $79,300

42. Washington University in St. Louis — St. Louis, Missouri

Tuition price: $51,533

Net price: $66,300

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $27,777

41. University of Virginia — Charlottesville, Virginia

Tuition price: 

In-state: $16,853

Out-of-state: $47,273

Net price: $16,594

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $60,700

40. College of the Holy Cross — Worcester, Massachusetts

Tuition price: $49,980

Net price: $27,005

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $65,200

39. Williams College — Williamstown, Massachusetts

Tuition price: $53,550

Net price: $20,380

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $54,100

38. Villanova University — Villanova, Pennsylvania

Tuition price: $50,554

Net price: $35,491

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $74,500

37. Northwestern University — Evanston, Illinois

Tuition price: $52,678

Net price: $26,099

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $65,900

36. Vanderbilt University — Nashville, Tennessee

Tuition price: $47,664

Net price: $23,295

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $64,500

35. Bentley University — Waltham, Massachusetts

Tuition price: $48,000

Net price: $36,613

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $80,600

34. Boston College — Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts

Tuition price: $53,346

Net price: $27,299

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $70,000

33. Columbia University — New York, New York

Tuition price: $57,208

Net price: $22,824

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $78,200

32. Carleton College — Northfield, Minnesota

Tuition price: $52,782

Net price: $28,148

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $52,600

31. Virginia Military Institute — Lexington, Virginia

Tuition price: 

In-state: $27,650

Out-of-state: $53,338

Net price: $16,085

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $63,200

30. Lafayette College — Easton, Pennsylvania

Tuition price: $51,600

Net price: $26,148

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $67,500

29. Claremont McKenna College — Claremont, California

Tuition price: $52,825

Net price: $28,712

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $75,000

28. Tufts University — Medford, Massachusetts

Tuition price: $54,318

Net price: $29,449

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $66,500

27. Brown University — Providence, Rhode Island

Tuition price: $53,419

Net price: $25,651

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $63,100

26. Dartmouth College — Hanover, New Hampshire

Tuition price: $53,496

Net price: $22,303

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $70,000

25. Stevens Institute of Technology — Hoboken, New Jersey

Tuition price: $52,394

Net price: $38,469

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $87,300

24. Colorado School of Mines — Golden, Colorado

Tuition price: 

In-state: $18,386

Out-of-state: $37,436

Net price: $25,472

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $82,100

23. Carnegie Mellon University — Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Tuition price: $53,910

Net price: $29,817

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $81,800

22. Georgetown University — Washington, DC

Tuition price: $52,300

Net price: $27,420

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $90,100

21. Lehigh University — Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

Tuition price: $50,740

Net price: $26,933

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $77,200

20. Cornell University — Ithaca, New York

Tuition price: $52,853

Net price: $31,449

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $73,600

19. Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology — Terre Haute, Indiana

Tuition price: $48,012

Net price: $41,536

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $79,200

18. Albany College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences — Albany, New York

Tuition price: $32,840

Net price: $30,359

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $122,600

17. Colgate University — Hamilton, New York

Tuition price: $55,530

Net price: $22,182

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $61,300

16. Harvey Mudd College — Claremont, California

Tuition price: $54,636

Net price: $38,135

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $74,200

15. Babson College — Wellesley, Massachusetts

Tuition price: $51,104

Net price: $29,847

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $91,400

14. St. Louis College of Pharmacy — St. Louis, Missouri

Tuition price: $28,451

Net price: $29,836

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $120,400

13. Washington & Lee University — Lexington, Virginia

Tuition price: $67,150

Net price: $25,029

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $72,300

12. Georgia Institute of Technology — Atlanta, Georgia

Tuition price: 

In-state: $12,418

Out-of-state: $33,014

Net price: $15,873

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $75,800

11. Rice University — Houston, Texas

Tuition price: $45,608

Net price: $24,131

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $64,300

10. Princeton University — Princeton, New Jersey

Tuition price: $47,140

Net price: $16,302

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $80,500

9. University of Pennsylvania — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Tuition price: $53,534

Net price: $24,539

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $82,400

8. California Institute of Technology — Pasadena, California

Tuition price: $49,908

Net price: $24,466

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $74,200

7. University of Notre Dame — Notre Dame, Indiana

Tuition price: $51,505

Net price: $27,453

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $71,600

6. United States Merchant Marine Academy — Kings Point, New York

Tuition price: $1,020

Net price: $4,870

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $78,900

5. Yale University — New Haven, Connecticut

Tuition price: $51,400

Net price: $18,053

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $83,200

4. Duke University — Durham, North Carolina

Tuition price: $53,744

Net price: $22,011

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $77,900

3. Harvard University — Cambridge, Massachusetts

Tuition price: $48,949

Net price: $17,030

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $90,900

2. Stanford University — Stanford, California

Tuition price: $49,617

Net price: $16,562

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $85,700

1. Massachusetts Institute of Technology — Cambridge, Massachusetts

Tuition price: $49,892

Net price: $22,230

Median earnings 6 years after graduation: $94,200

• The US economy has changed a lot in the last several decades.
• Using Census data, we found 20 industries that used to have a lot of young adults in their workforces that now are dominated by older workers.
• Several manufacturing and wholesale industries made the list.
• Visit BusinessInsider.com for more stories.

Blockbuster, Pogs, and the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles aren't the only things that had their time in the sun in the early '90s — jobs that were popular with young people back then are no longer drawing millennials.

We recently looked at what industries are currently dominated by millennials. To get a sense of how the US economy has changed since baby boomers and Gen Xers were young adults, we looked for once-popular jobs that have very few millennials employed today.

Read more: 37 jobs that could be decimated by 2026

Using data from the Minnesota Population Center's Integrated Public Use Microdata Series for the 1990 Census and 2017 American Community Survey, we found the share of the workforce aged 21 to 36 — how old millennials were in 2017, according to the Pew Research Center— in each year for 224 industry groups tracked by the Census Bureau.

The Pew Research Center provided definitions for generations, meaning that in 1990, plenty of baby boomers and Gen Xers were the same age older millennials were in 2017. The industries we're looking at were popular with those young adults in 1990, but had a much smaller share of similarly aged millennials in 2017.

As with broader trends in the economy as globalization and automation reshape the way Americans work, many of the industries that have seen a big drop in young-adult employment are in the manufacturing and wholesale trade sectors.

For each industry, we also included the average income among 21- to 36-year-olds working in that industry in 1990 and in 2017, adjusted for inflation.

20. Machinery, equipment, and supplies (wholesale): In 1990, 47% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 28% in 2017 (a 19-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $53,662

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $50,235

19. Manufacturing of leather products (except footwear): In 1990, 43% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 24% in 2017 (a 20-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $30,041

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $31,976

18. Manufacturing of bicycles and miscellaneous transportation: In 1990, 49% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 29% in 2017 (a 20-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $35,927

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $41,587

17. Bus services and urban transit: In 1990, 38% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 19% in 2017 (a 20-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $38,101

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $35,072

16. Miscellaneous plastics products manufacturing: In 1990, 50% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 30% in 2017 (a 20-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $38,636

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $38,109

15. Structural clay products manufacturing: In 1990, 50% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 30% in 2017 (a 20-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $40,033

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $32,538

Structural clay products include ceramic materials like bricks and tiles used in building structures.

14. Metals and minerals wholesale trade: In 1990, 46% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 26% in 2017 (a 20-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $48,510

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $54,020

13. Professional and commercial equipment and supplies wholesale trade: In 1990, 53% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 32% in 2017 (a 21-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $53,480

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $57,091

12. Fuel dealers: In 1990, 40% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 19% in 2017 (a 21-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $43,355

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $38,277

11. Air transportation: In 1990, 49% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 28% in 2017 (a 21-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $48,290

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $44,395

10. Miscellaneous nondurable goods wholesale trade: In 1990, 47% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 26% in 2017 (a 21-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $36,779

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $40,357

9. Pottery and related products manufacturing: In 1990, 46% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 25% in 2017 (a 21-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $38,931

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $40,549

8. Cement, concrete, gypsum, and plaster product manufacturing: In 1990, 46% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 25% in 2017 (a 21-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $44,822

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $46,439

7. Miscellaneous paper and pulp products manufacturing: In 1990, 46% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 25% in 2017 (a 21-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $42,083

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $47,564

6. Electrical goods wholesale trade: In 1990, 48% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 27% in 2017 (a 21-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $52,144

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $51,402

5. Computers and related equipment manufacturing: In 1990, 50% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 27% in 2017 (a 23-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $64,175

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $72,890

4. Printing, publishing, and allied industries, except newspapers: In 1990, 49% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 27% in 2017 (a 23-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $45,024

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $40,518

3. Dyeing and finishing textiles manufacturing: In 1990, 44% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 21% in 2017 (a 23-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $33,388

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $35,715

2. Machinery manufacturing: In 1990, 44% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 20% in 2017 (a 24-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $48,804

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $50,082

1. Wood building and mobile home manufacturing: In 1990, 57% of this workforce was aged 21 to 36, which fell to 31% in 2017 (a 26-point difference).

Average young-adult income in 1990 (2017 dollars): $37,799

Average young-adult income in 2017 (2017 dollars): $36,607

• Luisa Zhou — the creator of the Employee to Entrepreneur system, which teaches people how to leave their day job and start their own six-figure plus business working for themselves — has worked with over a thousand entrepreneur hopefuls.
• She loves helping people break from the 9-to-5 grind and build their own businesses. But it doesn't just happen. Entrepreneurs need to work for it. 
• Zhou says her most successful students don't give up, act fast, and treat their work like a second job, not just a hobby. 
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

"I just turned in my notice. I can't believe this is actually happening!"

I've gotten at least one message like this almost every week over the past few years of helping people start and build their own online businesses. It always makes my day because being able to break free from the 9 to 5 is the dream for so many people. However, it doesn't happen by accident. 

After working with over a thousand aspiring entrepreneurs, I've noticed that those who are able to build a business that replaces their salaries and allows them to leave their jobs share four key traits. 

SEE ALSO: 6 confidence hacks that helped me go from earning $75,000 to $500,000 a year

1. They think differently

Every person I've helped successfully go from employee to entrepreneur has been someone who asked, "How can I make this work for me?" instead of, "Will this work for me?"

That means when faced with a problem, they automatically look for ways to solve that problem and they don't stop until they've solved it. Giving up is not even an option that occurs to them.

For example, if they speak with a potential client and don't make a sale, they analyze what they could have done better. Then they use what they learned to improve their next pitch. Whereas their ultimately less successful counterparts might take that rejection as a sign that they should stop trying.

2. They are consistent (even when they don’t feel like it)

To quote Stephen King, "Amateurs sit and wait for inspiration, the rest of us just get up and go to work."

Building a successful business requires you to show up and do the work every day, whether or not you feel like it. That includes times when you don't feel inspired or motivated, when you're tired after a full day at your job, and when all you want to do is hide from the world and wallow after an obstacle or rejection.

If you're serious about building your business, you have to view it not as a hobby that you work on when you feel like it, but as a second job (even if it's unpaid at first). That means set times to work on your business without fail.

3. They are fast action-takers

Here's a common scenario: I'll give someone exact steps they should follow to get started in their business. Then, I'll check in with them a few weeks later and ask how they're progressing. 

Too often, that person will tell me that they didn't get around to it for one reason or another.

My most successful students though? They'll have already finished implementing everything we discussed and have gotten back to me within days.

They don't waste time wondering if it's the best use of their time or if there's something else they should be doing. They also don't waste time worrying about failing or getting rejected or looking stupid. They just do it.

That's because they understand that they don't need to get it perfect; they just need to get it done.

4. They look backwards, not forwards

This might seem a bit counterintuitive. Here's what I mean: building a successful business takes a lot of time and hard work. And especially in the beginning, when you're starting from scratch, that end point of having a profitable business might seem inconceivably far away.

So if you're measuring your progress against that ultimate goal, it can often feel incredibly daunting and even impossible. 

For example, let's say you've made one sale in your business for $1,000. And your goal is to make $20,000 in sales before you feel comfortable turning in your notice.

Looking "forwards," you might think to yourself, "I've only made $1,000 in my business, and I need to make $19,000 more." And that might feel incredibly overwhelming.

However, if you are looking "backwards" you would instead think, "Wow, I went from having no idea if anyone would even want to pay me to making my first $1,000. Look how far I've come!" And that would probably excite and motivate you.

The truth is that every successful entrepreneur starts from the same place: zero. Zero clients, audience, or brand recognition. Those who succeed don't do so because they're luckier or smarter than the rest of us.

If you're willing to problem solve, prioritize your business goals, take consistent action, and be disciplined in your thinking, you too could be turning in your notice sooner than you might've thought possible.

Luisa Zhou is the creator of the Employee to Entrepreneur system, which teaches people how to leave their day job and start their own six-figure plus business working for themselves. She's been featured in Forbes, Inc, Entrepreneur, Success magazine, and more. Get her free blueprint for building a profitable online coaching business that frees you from the 9-5.

• It's important to know how to write an excellent email subject line.
• Your email subject line will often determine whether or not anyone will actually read your message.
• In order to make the email stand out, keep your subject line short, specific, and personalized.
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.
  

How can you write the perfect email subject line?

It's an important question to ask yourself whenever you're preparing to send out an important email. US workers send billions of emails every day. You need to make sure your message stands out.

Read more:What your email inbox reveals about your personality

Business Insider spoke with a number of career experts to get their secrets on crafting the perfect email subject line. We also included a few examples of awesome subject lines that recipients are sure to click on.

Here are some tips on how to write an excellent email subject line:

SEE ALSO: A Microsoft study found that a key habit suggests you're a bad manager, and it comes down to how you handle emails

Always write a subject line.

Experts said that not including a subject line is one of the biggest mistakes you can make.

The subject line often determines whether an email is opened and how the recipient responds.

An email with a blank subject line will likely get deleted, lost, or immediately irritate the recipient, who is forced to open the email to figure out what it's about.

Write the subject line first.

For many professionals, the subject line is an afterthought that you add just before you hit send. But Amanda Augustine, a career expert at TopResume, told Business Insider that it can be the most important part of the email. 

Write the subject line first, so that it sets the tone and you don't forget.

Keep it short.

A typical inbox reveals about 60 characters of an email's subject line, while a mobile phone shows just 25 to 30 characters, said Augustine. Get right to the point in about six to eight words.

Place the most important words at the beginning.

Dmitri Leonov, a VP at email management service SaneBox, told Business Insider that a whopping 50% of emails are read on mobile phones. Since you don't know how much of the subject line will be viewable from a smartphone, it's important to put the most important information at the beginning. Otherwise, compelling details could get cut off.

Eliminate filler words.

With such precious space, don't waste it with unnecessary words like "hello," "nice to meet you," and "thanks," which can easily be included in the email's body, the experts said.

Be clear and specific about the topic of the email.

The subject line should communicate exactly what the email is about so that the recipient can prioritize the email's importance without having to open it, the experts said.

For example, writing "Do you have a sec?" is vague, said Augustine, since the reader will have to open the email or reply to figure out what you want.

If it's a job application, she suggests including your name and the position, and if it's to another coworker, you should identify the project that the email refers to. 

Keep it simple and focused.

Especially if you're sending a marketing email, Kipp Bodnar, a VP at marketing software platform HubSpot, told Business Insider that it should be focused on one action, which should be communicated in the subject line.

Offer one takeaway, indicate how the reader can make use of it, and specify how you will deliver it.

Use logical keywords for search and filtering.

Most professionals have filters and folders set up to manage their email and probably won't focus on your message when they first see it, said Leonov.

That's why it's important to include keywords related to the topic of the email that will make it searchable later.

Indicate if you need a response.

"People want to know whether they really need to read this now and if they have to respond," said Augustine. If you need a response, make it clear in the subject line by saying "please reply" or "thoughts needed on X topic."

If not, simply start the line with "Please read," or tack on "no response needed" or "FYI" to the end.

Set a deadline in the subject line.

Especially if you have a lot of information to convey in the email itself, the experts said that including a deadline right in the subject line exponentially increases the odds that readers will respond.

For example, after the email's topic, you could say: "Please reply by EOD Friday."

If someone referred you, be sure to use their name.

If you've been referred by a mutual acquaintance, do not save that for the body of the email, said Augustine. Put it in the subject line to grab the reader's attention right away. Moreover, she suggests beginning the subject line with the full name of the person who referred you.

Highlight the value you have to offer.

If sending a cold email to someone you don't know, "you need a subject line that indicates value and communicates what they're going to get," said Bodnar. Pique the reader's interest by offering them something that's helpful.

Whether you're providing a speaking opportunity, a discount, or a service, make it clear in the subject line what's in it for them.

Personalize it with the recipient's name or company name.

You have to know who you're sending the email to, and they have to recognize that it's about them or a subject interesting to them, Bodnar said. Using their name or company name is one of the best ways to do that, he says, and makes the recipient much more likely to open the email.

For example, you might write, "Increase Company's sales by 25%," or "John, see how you compare to competitors."

Create urgency by limiting the timeframe.

To grab someone's attention and persuade them to reply, the experts suggested creating a deadline for your proposition. Common ways of creating urgency include "respond now," "register today," and "limited space available — reply soon."

Don't start a sentence that you finish in the email's body.

If you begin a thought or question that ends in the email, then the reader is forced to open the email. It's annoying, and since clarity and being respectful of the recipient's time is the goal, it's not very helpful, said Augustine.

Consider whether instant message, a call, or an in-person chat might be a better medium for your question. 

Make sure you re-read the subject line.

Augustine also warned against copy-and-paste errors. Sometimes when people are sending a similar email to multiple people, they forget to tailor it to each reader and end up with the wrong name or title in the subject line. The easiest way to avoid this is to reread the subject line before you hit send. 

Don't put words in ALL CAPS.

Using all caps may get someone's attention, but in the wrong way.

"This is email 101, but people still break this cardinal rule," Michael Kerr, an international business speaker and author of "The Humor Advantage," previously told Business Insider. "Putting any phrase in all caps is the equivalent of shouting."

Your job is to make the email as easy as possible for the recipient to read rather than giving them anxiety, said Leonov.

Instead, use dashes or colons to separate thoughts, and avoid special characters like exclamation points.

Don't just type a string of punctuation.

A line of punctuation does not an email subject line make.

As Inc. contributor Amanda Pressner Kreuser wrote, "'?????' and its cousin '!!!!!' are unnecessarily aggressive, and — perhaps worse — don't actually communicate the problem (or anything)."

Here are some examples of excellent email subject lines.

For a job application:

Referred by Jane Brown for Technical Writer position

Human Resources Assistant Application — John Smith

For an interview follow up:

John Smith Following Up on Sales Position

Marketing Manager interview follow up

For a work request:

Requesting Project X idea submissions — Due Jan 15

Employee Survey: Please take by EOD Friday

For a meeting invitation:

Meet about social media strategy Tuesday?

Free to catch up over coffee next week?

For an introduction:

An Introduction: Ed Wingfield Meet John Smith

Potential collaboration on TV marketing plan

For a marketing pitch:

Mastering Digital Media Webinar — Register Today

John, see how you compare to competitors

For requesting information:

Inquiring about your design services

Request for information on NY venue

Jeann Goudreau wrote a previous version of this article

• Crosschq, a recruiting-software startup that lets users track and store reference-check data, announced on Wednesday that it had raised $4.1 million in seed funding.
• GGV Capital led the round, and its partner Glenn Solomon will join Crosschq's board as its first outside member. Bessemer Venture Partners, the Eventbrite cofounder Kevin Hartz, and the Golden State Warriors star Klay Thompson also participated in the round.
• Crosschq cofounder and CEO Mike Fitzsimmons called the recruiting process "fundamentally broken" and said LinkedIn's "monopoly" was partially to blame.
• Click here for more BI Prime stories.

With record-low unemployment rates, skyrocketing costs of living, and competitive job markets, recruiting top talent in Silicon Valley and beyond has never been more difficult.

It's a problem Silicon Valley has been eager to solve, with startups like Checkr, Greenhouse, and Lever all gaining popularity on promises to streamline the often manual hiring process. The newest addition to the growing pool of recruiting tools is Crosschq, which on Wednesday announced that it had raised $4.1 million in seed funding in a round led by GGV. Bessemer Venture Partners, the Eventbrite cofounder Kevin Hartz, and the Golden State Warriors star Klay Thompson also participated in the oversubscribed round.

Instead of trying to break out of an already saturated field, Crosschq — pronounced "cross-check" — works with recruitment-management tools like Greenhouse and Lever to digitize, track, and collect reference-check data.

"When we looked at what I would call the screening space or matching space in the recruiting funnel, we saw it was cluttered with companies like Checkr, and that's cool and interesting and needs to be done, but what's missing here is the human element," Crosschq cofounder and CEO Mike Fitzsimmons told Business Insider.

Read more:Truework, a data management and monitoring startup, raises $12 million from Sequoia Capital to take on beleaguered credit monitoring tools like Equifax

Fitzsimmons' question is simple: How can a startup match the right candidate with the right position? But in practice, the pairing is riddled with bias because the recruiting process is "fundamentally broken," Fitzsimmons said. References are typically short phone conversations that don't go in-depth on the candidate, and that information is lost as soon as the recruiter or hiring manager hangs up.

"It's appalling how LinkedIn has a monopoly on recruiting," Fitzsimmons said. "We rely on that as a primary source of truth even though the information is incredibly difficult to verify and some profiles outright lie. We needed a solution for real, validated feedback on people from people that's beyond just what's on the résumé."

Fitzsimmons told Business Insider that as a serial entrepreneur, he'd run into the hiring problem over and over again throughout his career. A promising candidate would accept a job only to leave after a few months or would otherwise turn out not to be a fit for the company.

Fitzsimmons' experience wasn't out of the ordinary, especially at high-growth companies where one in five hires ultimately don't work out and only half of all new hires stick around for two years.

Glenn Solomon, a GGV partner and new Crosschq board member told Business Insider that he "had a lot of personal experience with hiring at different levels, both at GGV and at the many portfolio companies in which we are involved."

"One of the key challenges is always to create a process where you get to predictably good results, because it's not an easy thing to actually get right," Solomon said. "As companies are growing fast, everyone is busy and needs change, so assessing fit is not a simple task."

The tools that try to automate the process are riddled with bias, Fitzsimmons said, by screening résumés for things like university names or experience at notable companies — they take out the human element.

He pointed to Thompson's career as evidence that all recruiting systems need an overhaul.

"Klay came out of college as a low draft pick, certainly compared to how he's turned out," Fitzsimmons said. "He exemplifies what Crosschq can be for all professionals. If we can make sure that every employee is matched with their company as well as Klay was matched with the Warriors, it will be a better place."

SEE ALSO: 2 years after the founder of 500 Startups left amid sexual harassment allegations, 2 women are running the firm and setting a new bar in the male-dominated business

Join the conversation about this story »

NOW WATCH: How Area 51 became the center of alien conspiracy theories

• Doctors are at a loss when patients come in and report social isolation or struggles to access food, safe housing or dependable transportation. 
• So Blue Shield of California Promise Health plan created a new kind of job to help: "social needs care specialists" to whom doctors could refer patients. 
• The change, which was spearheaded by senior medical director Chris Esguerra, saved the health plan $4 million last year in avoided hospital and emergency room visits alone.
• Business Insider just named Esguerra to our list of 30 young leaders who are transforming the industry.
• Click here to see the full list of the 30 people under 40 who are transforming healthcare.
• Click here for more BI Prime stories.

Imagine you're a doctor, and a patient comes into your office one day.

This individual has been diagnosed with diabetes, a chronic condition in which food plays an enormous role. Yet he or she also doesn't have enough to eat, and it's affecting their health.

What do you do?

That's the gap that Chris Esguerra's team at Blue Shield of California Promise Health Plan set about addressing last year at the two primary care clinics that the health insurer owns and runs. The solution they engineered saved at least $4 million in 2018, and serves as an example of how to create change in a complex and difficult-to-move system, Esguerra said.

These kinds of social needs are widely recognized as having an impact on an individual's health, but addressing them is difficult.

"Ultimately, it falls into helping folks see a different way of looking at healthcare," Esguerra, the health plan's senior medical director, told Business Insider. "These days I actually say, 'How do I hijack the language?' so I can insert a different way of doing it."

Esguerra, who is 39 years old and has a background as a psychiatrist, came to Blue Shield of California in late 2017. He and his team at the health insurer's Promise Health Plan focus on members covered by the government programs Medicare and Medicaid, who often have a number of health conditions and also need different kinds of social support. 

In recognition of the work Esguerra is doing to redraw the traditional lines of healthcare, Business Insider just named him to our list of 30 young leaders who are transforming the industry.

Click here to see the full list of the young leaders who are transforming US healthcare.

Working within medicine's referral system to create a new type of specialist

For patients who need an additional medical perspective, doctors refer them to other physicians — like specialists in areas such as cancer and heart disease. 

So Blue Shield of California Promise Health Plan created the same concept for "social needs" like food insecurity, safe housing, dependable transportation and social isolation, employing community health advocates and social workers as "social needs care specialists."

The health plan had never had this type of role before it was implemented at the end of 2018. Today, three specialists work across the health insurer's two clinics, and new hires should bring the total to five, Esguerra said.

Health advocates like Stephanie Johannesmeyer and Amilcar Ramirez work as part of a team of just under 30 doctors, nurses and more who treat a population of 11,500 in a high-needs part of Los Angeles.

Blue Shield of California also aims to try this out on a wider scale. It is currently hiring nine specialists to do the same for its roughly 410,000 members in Los Angeles and San Diego counties who are insured through Medicaid.

Caring for hunger and loneliness made patients healthier and saved money for Blue Shield

Esguerra and his team initially worried this system would be costly. At the start, they employed one "very burnt out" social worker, but knew there was more work than one person could handle, Esguerra said.

Yet it has paid off, saving the health plan $4 million last year in avoided hospital stays and emergency room visits alone, Esguerra said.

This shows that "folks are less encumbered and healthier, and the result is they don't have to go to the hospital or emergency room as much. And as a result that has savings to the system," he says. 

The case study also speaks to the importance of building change into an existing system. By using the language of medicine to explain the new role, "people can see there is this broader way of going about things," Esguerra said. "Now, it's not just me championing it. It's our physicians saying, 'How can we do more?'"

Join the conversation about this story »

NOW WATCH: Look inside the 3D-printed Mars home that NASA awarded $500,000

• Experts say that trying to predict who's going to be the next person to commit an act of mass violence isn't a practical prevention tactic due to the minute statistics involved. 
• While horrific, mass shootings remain rare among the wide range of human behaviors.
• While mass shooters tend to be "disaffected, young white men," there are vastly more people who fit this description than who will commit violence. 
• Even if you can identify people who hold extremist views, predicting whether they will become terrorists is much harder than inhibiting acts of violence by removing guns.
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

Calls for greater gun control have swept the nation after the killings in El Paso, Texas, and Dayton, Ohio.

A related refrain has been to identify potential gunmen before they commit mass shootings. 

But mass violence, for its infrequency, is also exceedingly difficult to predict.

Read more:El Paso, where a gunman reportedly worried about a 'Hispanic invasion of Texas' shot up a Walmart, is one of the country's largest Latino cities

Mass shooters might fit a profile, yet this still can't predict when a particular person will commit an attack.

Since 1982, 64 out of 114 mass shootings in the US were committed by white men, according to Mother Jones. Many recent shooters have also had histories of domestic abuse. Connor Betts, who authorities have identified as the shooter behind the Dayton attack, reportedly kept a "rape list" naming women and girls he wanted to sexually assault.

Yet while mass shooters do tend to be disaffected young white men with a history of violence, identifying people who fit this description before they strike isn't always an option, Paul Appelbaum, a professor of psychiatry at Columbia University, told Business Insider. The vast majority of people who fit this description will not commit violence, and mass shootings (while devastating) are still a relatively rare occurrence.

In this way, mass shootings are like other horrific, yet still rare, human behaviors. To Applebaum, these shootings are like predicting suicide: While those who complete suicide tend to be young people with deep depression who have a history of substance abuse, individuals with this profile vastly outnumber those taking their lives each year.

A similar statistical issue comes with violent extremism, which is closely related to mass shooting. Psychologist John Horgan has spent the last two decades conducting and analyzing interviews with terrorists. He has found they tend to feel angry and disenfranchised, while also believing they are victims of social injustice. Yet, as he explained to Scientific American, beliefs don't always predict behavior. 

"There are far more people who hold 'radical' views than will ever become involved in terrorism, and there are plenty of terrorists (who are already small in number – a point we tend to forget) who don't initially hold radical views but drift into terrorism regardless," he says. 

Psychologists say an easier approach to decreasing violence is getting rid of guns. 

There isn't a known psychological profile to perfectly identify whether someone will commit a mass shooting, or for that matter, suicide. Yet, in both instances, countries can control the instrument of violence: guns.

Guns are the most common way people take their own lives. People who die by suicide are more likely to have firearms in their house, and states with lax gun laws have more suicide, according to a 2019 study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 

Many other countries have limited gun-related violence due in part to the decreasing accessibility to guns. Australia, for instance, cut gun-related deaths in half in under a decade by paying citizens to relinquish their firearms.

"If you weren't going to try to figure out who was likely to commit a horrendous act of violence, what would you do?" Appelbaum, the Columbia psychiatrist, said. "The fact of the matter is if you look around the world at the countries effective at reducing gun violence, they've done it by restricting access to guns."

SEE ALSO: Terrorists, martyrs, and workaholics all share the same psychological profile

Join the conversation about this story »

• The best interview questions make the hiring manager stop and reflect, and shift the interview to a more organic conversation.
• That's according to Gerard Ohen, the vice president of talent acquisition at Oscar Health.
• Ohen said one impressive interview question he's heard is: "If you had another chance to interview for a role at Oscar, what questions would you ask, given what you know now?"
• Click here for more BI Prime content.

When you show up for a job interview, there's a solid chance that the hiring manager is interviewing a dozen other candidates that day.

So you'll want to do something to stand out.

Ask Gerard Ohen, and he'll tell you the best way to do that is to ask a question that makes your interviewer think.

Ohen is the vice president of talent acquisition at Oscar Health, a $3.2 billion health-insurance startup with more than 1,000 employees. He's spent roughly 15 years in human resources, and he previously worked at Verizon.

Ohen's preference for candidates who make him stop and reflect fits with research on successful interviewing — recent work with MBA students found that the interviewer is more likely to remember what was talked about with a candidate when the conversation goes off script and unfolds organically.

That's especially true if the interviewer is overwhelmed with candidates. Earlier in Ohen's career, he'd interview 15 to 20 job candidates every day. Even at Oscar, where he oversees recruitment, he interviews a handful of people per week.

But he still recalls one of the most impressive questions he's been asked by a job candidate: "If you had another chance to interview for a role at Oscar, what questions would you ask, given what you know now?"

That question turned the tables on Ohen and prompted him to "put myself in the candidate's shoes and draw on what I've learned during my time at Oscar," he said.

What's more, the question "shifted the conversation" from a one-way interview "to more of a genuine, authentic dialogue," Ohen said. It wasn't just Ohen evaluating the candidate — the candidate was also sussing out whether the work environment at Oscar aligned with their values and needs.

Read more:An organizational psychologist has a sneaky job-interview question to figure out what it's really like to work somewhere

Showing some vulnerability in a job interview is a good thing

Another interview question Ohen appreciates: What does success look like in this role?

It's a more generic prompt, Ohen said, and he's typically well prepared to address it. But this question can also be a launching pad for other conversation topics.

For example, let's say Ohen mentions that successful employees demonstrate outstanding leadership skills. At that point, the candidate might realize that they haven't yet told Ohen about their leadership experience. Now they have an opening to talk about it.

If the candidate doesn't have formal leadership experience to include on their résumé, they might use this opportunity to explain why they'd still be a good fit for the role.

Ohen's comments recall insights from Traci Wilk, a former Starbucks HR exec who's now the senior vice president of people at The Learning Experience.

Wilk previously told Business Insider that she was impressed when a job candidate asked about potential challenges she would face if she got the job. The question worked because it showed that the candidate was genuinely interested in what it would be like to work at the company.

Plus, Wilk said, it "caused me to be very reflective" and "it led to a really great conversation."

As for Ohen, he emphasized the importance of using the job interview to go beyond what's on your résumé — to show the hiring manager that you're thoughtful, motivated, and really excited about the job.

"If I'm learning something in an interview," Ohen said, whether it's about himself or the candidate, "that's good."

SEE ALSO: POWER BROKERS OF TECH: HR chiefs reveal how to get hired at Microsoft, Facebook, Netflix, and other top companies

Join the conversation about this story »

NOW WATCH: Stewart Butterfield, co-founder of Slack and Flickr, says 2 beliefs have brought him the greatest success in life

• As summer draws to a close, so does the time for reading by the beach.
• When you consider your final beach reads, take these professional development books into account.
• From an Elon Musk biography to a neurological explanation of "eureka" moments, these books will make you smarter about business.
• Click here for more BI Prime stories.

The best part of the summer could be the sunshine, activities, time off — or the beach reads. There's still time to catch up on your reading as the season draws to a close, and there are plenty of great business books to add to your list.

We've picked our favorite books that will help enrich your professional life. From the first in-depth biography of billionaire entrepreneur Elon Musk to a neurological explanation of "eureka" moments, these books will make you smarter about business while you're waiting in the airport or lying on the beach.

SEE ALSO: 10 books that will give new managers the self-confidence necessary to lead, motivate, and inspire their team

'Elon Musk' by Ashlee Vance

Musk is the billionaire CEO of SpaceX and Tesla. He says his mission in life is to prevent the human race from destroying itself.

Vance, a Bloomberg Businessweek reporter, gained unprecedented access to Musk and those closest to him. He paints a picture of a man who has always felt a desire to change the world despite having difficulty finding his place in it, and a leader whose intensity can be difficult for the people he works with while simultaneously inspiring them.

Buy it here >>

'Work Rules!' by Laszlo Bock

Since joining Google as its senior vice president of People Operations in 2006, Bock has seen the company transform into a powerful global business, growing from 6,000 employees to nearly 60,000. In that same time, Google has regularly topped lists of the best places to work.

Bock takes readers behind the scenes and explores the management strategies that have helped make Google exceptional, from differentiating between employee development and performance and "paying unfairly."

Buy it here >>

'No One Understands You and What to Do About It' by Heidi Grant Halvorson

We'll give you the benefit of the doubt: You're the smartest, most talented member of your team. But if your colleagues don't work well with you, it is partially your fault.

Halvorson, a social psychologist at the Columbia Business School, breaks down decades of research into an enjoyable guide to understanding how people perceive each other, and how this knowledge can make you a better communicator.

Buy it here >>

'Straight to Hell' by John LeFevre

LeFevre is a former Citigroup bond trader who got famous through his Twitter account "Goldman Sachs Elevator," a collection of biting Wall Street satirical pieces pointing out callousness and cluelessness that bankers, traders, and investors came to embrace.

His book is part satire and part memoir, an insider's "unapologetic" look at the world of finance.

Buy it here >>

'Digital Gold' by Nathaniel Popper

Last year, Newsweek caused a stir when it ran a cover story claiming it had identified the creator of the online currency Bitcoin. Soon after the report, members of the Bitcoin community were convinced Newsweek found the wrong guy.

Popper, a New York Times reporter, seems to have discovered the actual man behind Bitcoin, and "Digital Gold" is the most complete look at the currency's history, concluding that it has passed the point of being a mere fad. 

Buy it here >>

'The Misfit Economy' by Alexa Clay and Kyra Maya Phillips

Authors Clay and Phillips take a look at the organizational models of outlaws like Somali pirates and Brazilian counterfeiters, arguing that "these innovators display remarkable ingenuity, pioneering original methods and practices that we can learn from and apply to move formal markets."

Their book compels readers to not dismiss fringe management styles, even from the world's most unsavory characters, and instead learn how to incorporate a fearless experimentation into your workplace.

Buy it here >>

'When to Rob a Bank' by Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner

In 2015, economist Steven Levitt and author Stephen Dubner celebrated the tenth anniversary of their blockbuster book "Freakonomics" with a collection of 131 of their favorite blog posts from the past decade.

You'll learn about the psychology of lying, the argument to abolish the penny, and why robbing a bank isn't a bad idea because of the morality, but because it has a terrible return on investment.

Buy it here >>

'Bold' by Peter H. Diamandis and Steven Kotler

Serial tech entrepreneur Peter H. Diamandis and author/entrepreneur Steven Kotler follow up their best-selling book "Abundance" with a look at the technologies and entrepreneurs redefining our world.

The book has valuable insight from the likes of Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos, and Richard Branson.

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'Design to Grow' by David Butler and Linda Tischler

That Coca-Cola has dominated the soft-drink market for more than a century and is one of the world's largest brands isn't just because lots of people enjoy drinking Coke.

With the help of Fast Company's late senior editor Linda Tischler, Coca-Cola's former VP of innovation and entrepreneurship David Butler offers a rare look into the workings of Coke and how it has stayed ahead of the competition by remaining agile.

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'Clay Water Brick' by Jessica Jackley

Jackley is the cofounder of Kiva, a microlending site that helps entrepreneurs from around the world develop their businesses as a way to lift themselves out of poverty.

"Clay Water Brick" is Jackley's recounting of developing Kiva from a dying startup in 2005 to a global network that has raised $709 million in loans, with a repayment rate of 98.72%.

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'The Road to Character' by David Brooks

New York Times columnist David Brooks believes the increasing fixation on online personal branding and racking up achievements for a résumé has become toxic.

He explores the lives of a wide variety of historical figures like St. Augustine and Dorothy Day to illustrate his point: that true success should be associated more closely with forgetting one's self and connecting with others.

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'The Eureka Factor' by John Kounios and Mark Beeman

Drexel's John Kounios and Northwestern's Mark Beeman are neuroscientists who have spent their careers studying the manifestation of creativity in the brain.

Their book is a collection of their research into "aha! moments" when the brain overcomes a confusion to have a spark of insight.

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'Better Than Before' by Gretchen Rubin

Rubin has devoted her writing career to examining the latest and most important research on how happiness is manifested in the brain and how people can change their lives to increase the regularity of these reactions.

In "Better Than Before," Rubin takes scientific findings on habit formation and turns them into practical and useful processes that can help you live a happier life.

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'Rise of the Robots' by Martin Ford

Robots are increasingly intelligent and they're coming to take your job, says Ford, a futurist and entrepreneur.

But rather than being a warning from a tech-fearing Luddite, Ford guides readers through the surprising evolution of artificial intelligence from simple task-based machines into quick-thinking programs that can replace service workers, journalists, and programmers. 

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'How Music Got Free' by Stephen Witt

The story of how the digital music industry crushed the CD industry has been old news for years now, but Witt takes a look at the personalities who accelerated the spread of piracy to profit off the death of the physical album.

Witt uncovers the largely untold stories of people like the German entrepreneurs who invented the mp3 file and Dell Glover, the compact disc factory worker who leaked some of the biggest albums of the aughts, leaving record label execs frustrated and scared.

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'The Creator's Code' by Amy Wilkinson

While any successful entrepreneur has to experience failure, enjoy luck, and learn along the way, there are certain approaches that can make the journey a bit smoother, says Stanford Business School lecturer and corporate strategist Amy Wilkinson.

From more than 200 interviews with entrepreneurs like LinkedIn's Reid Hoffman, Chipotle's Steve Ells, and Gilt Groupe's Alexis Maybank and Alexandra Wilkins, Wilkinson has determined six essential skills that drive success across all industries and circumstances.

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'Holacracy' by Brian J. Robertson

You may have heard that popular online retailer Zappos now operates as a "Holacracy," a system in which manager roles and job titles are eliminated.

Holacracy is a difficult concept to understand, but its founder Brian Robertson breaks it down simply and thoroughly. Regardless of your conclusion about the system's potential, it is undoubtedly the alternative management approach that will be getting the most attention over the next few years as we see how it affects thousands of employees around the world.

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'Triggers' by Marshall Goldsmith and Mark Reiter

Goldsmith is an executive coach who has worked with the leadership of massive companies like Pfizer and Target.

His approach can help you determine what isn't working with your team, and how to develop new habits and processes for maximizing efficiency and productivity.

Buy it here >>

'The Career Playbook' by James M. Citrin

This book is the perfect gift for a new college graduate, or for yourself if you happen to be just starting out in your own career.

Citrin leads executive recruitment firm Spencer Stuart's North American CEO practice, and has spent decades determining what makes a job candidate stand out from a highly competitive pool of applicants. His book breaks down the basics of skills like networking, interviewing, and negotiating.

Buy it here >>

'Bourbon Empire' by Reid Mitenbuler

Mitenbuler is a journalist who tracks the history of American whiskey, from the frontier through Prohibition to the luxury brands of today.

He shows how bourbon is a product uniquely tied to the history of the US, and one that required ruthless business tactics and innovation to become an iconic product.

Buy it here >>

• Stanford Graduate School of Business (GSB) topped the 2019 rankings of selective business school admission rates, with an admission rate of only 6.1%.
• Below, six successful applicants discuss what worked for getting in the door and what didn't.
• For starters, be sure to tell a unified, coherent, and compelling story throughout your application — and don't focus on trying to be what you think the admissions committee wants.
• The school's assistant dean of MBA admissions says that her team specifically looks for people who've taken initiative, engaged others in their efforts, and helped others grow.
• Click here for more BI Prime stories.

A 2019 ranking of business school admission rates showed Stanford Graduate School of Business (GSB) at the top of the list of most selective schools. Yes, it's even harder to get into Stanford's elite business program than Harvard's, Yale's, Columbia's, or Wharton's.

"It is very competitive and the bar to stand out is even higher," said Benjamin Fernandes, Stanford GSB alum and founder and CEO of NALA. "Every year, more and more people apply, and the school is always looking for the best class to bring in."

"To me, the biggest challenge was that it was just daunting, with such a low acceptance rate and so many qualified applicants," said Nicole Alvino, co-founder and chief strategy officer of SocialChorus and an '04 Stanford GSB graduate.

Stanford GSB's exceedingly slim 6.1% acceptance rate — for perspective, around 20% of applicants get into Yale and Wharton's business programs — means that any edge you can give yourself in this ultra-competitive field can make a difference.

To that end, Business Insider asked six Stanford business school grads — as well as the assistant dean of MBA admissions and financial aid at Stanford's Graduate School of Business — for their insights on how to get noticed and tapped by Stanford GBS's extremely selective Admissions Committee. Here's their top advice.

Don't imitate what you think the Admissions Committee wants to see

While the stereotype of the ideal Ivy League candidate is someone who fulfills the traditional version of achievement (with legacy to boot), Stanford alums highlight the importance of bringing your own distinct A-game to your application. Ian Cinnamon, Stanford GSB alum and president and founder of Synapse Technology Corporation based in Silicon Valley, noticed that his GSB classmates were all "incredibly unique," which provides some insight into what the Admissions Committee values. "Everyone really focused their applications not just on their accomplishments, but their unique motivations that drove them," said Cinnamon.

As a result, his top advice for Stanford business school applicants is to be uniquely you — not an imitation of a type. "Don't try to fit into an unnatural mold. Be true to yourself, be true to what drives you," suggested Cinnamon. "Whether you want to be a journalist, a singer, or a rodeo bull rider, there is no passion that is too 'outside the box' for the GSB. Even classmates who came from similar backgrounds (consulting or finance) each had their own passions and drives that they pursued during the GSB." 

Other Stanford business school alums validated this advice with their own messages. "Tell a story that only you can tell, and avoid writing answers that you think the administration is looking for," offered Samantha Dong, founder and CEO of Ally Shoes. "Authenticity is one of the most important lessons we learned at the GSB. Honestly, people can tell the difference. It's truly one of the greatest gifts to be surrounded by people with a passion for something meaningful, and the drive and capacity to make change happen. If you believe you are one of those people, show it with your story and your unique voice." 

"Please don't try to 'model' your application after someone else you know who got in," said Irina Farooq, chief product officer of Kinetica. "You are not that person, and this approach will inevitably impact your ability to articulate your unique experiences and points of view. The best you can do is to stay true to yourself and your aspirations." Fernandes added: "Be honest about your journey and where you want to go. Finally, be humble, you are not perfect, don't feel the need to show this. Admissions officers have read thousands of essays each year and could spot something being embellished from a mile away." 

Make sure your entire application tells a cohesive story

No guide for getting into business school — much less at a top-tier institution like Stanford — would be complete without mentioning strategic approaches to the essay component of the application. Fernandes focused his tips for getting into the competitive program around how you approach the business school essay. "Truly reflect on the essay question, 'What matters to you most and why?'" said Fernandes. "It's a deep question for anyone to ask themselves; it's almost like asking yourself, what is your life's purpose?" 

Dong agreed that the "What matters most to you and why?" essay question is "notoriously daunting," noting that she found answering this question to be the single biggest challenge of getting into the GSB. To overcome this formidable obstacle, she wrote 20 different drafts before finalizing her essay. "Ultimately, two things helped me put things in perspective," recalled Dong. "I wrote down all the meaningful, big moments in my life, and tried looking for common threads. I also asked myself this question: What's the one thing in life I cannot live without?" 

Fernandes emphasized ensuring that your entire application tells a similar story that delivers a coherent, compelling message throughout. "Your story makes you stand out, but it wouldn't make any sense if one talks about wanting to use technology to transform the football industry and nothing else in your application talking about your passion for football and technology," he explained.

Distinguish yourself in a jam-packed field

Sal Hazday, COO of OppLoans, said he had to be persistent to succeed in his goal to earn a Stanford MBA. "I sent in additional recommendations and my own self-recommendation on what made me a different type of candidate," said Hazday. The reason behind these extra efforts was what Hazday found to be the biggest challenge in getting into Stanford GSB: "Knowing that I had to compete not just with smart people who went to prestigious schools, received good grades, and had successful careers prior to business school, but also they did amazing and interesting things in other areas like athletics, research, or volunteer work."

To help tip the balance and compete in this arena, Hazday encourages candidates to diversify their work experience, like he did: "I had the opportunity to work abroad in very different countries (Saudi Arabia, Costa Rica) as a SAP consultant — it provided a unique foundation to further build my knowledge in solving business challenges globally." 

Read more: Here's exactly what it takes to get accepted into Harvard Business School, according to 5 grads and the managing director of admissions

Express your unique form of leadership

When Farooq first became interested in applying to Stanford Business School, she discovered that the biggest challenge was trying to figure out what she "needed" to do to get in. "At the time, I didn't know a single person who had gone there, but it seemed like everyone around me had heard of 'ideal' strategies to get in," recalled Farooq. "At first, it made the GSB seem like this mythical place for which I had to completely stretch and change myself to get in. That was extremely unsettling." 

Farooq was ultimately able to hurdle this challenge by realizing the first point in the list of strategies above — as she explained it: "that Stanford actually wants you to bring your unique self to the table." With this new perspective, Farooq focused not on stressing the outcome but on giving the Admissions Committee an accurate picture of herself, her goals, and her aspirations. Her route to finding her authentic voice came by tapping into her unique form of leadership and expressing that in her application. 

"It's a small class of around 360 people, so they are looking for every single person to demonstrate how they can be a future leader," said Farooq. "But they also deeply understand that leadership comes in many different forms, and are looking for people from different backgrounds. In fact, a big part of the program is structured around honing your leadership skills, where you get challenged by different perspectives." Pointing out that Stanford GSB's motto is, "Change Lives, Change Organizations, Change the World," Farooq finds it no surprise that their admissions essays are geared towards understanding you as a person and your potential as a future leader. "I used this as an opportunity to really introspect my own goals and motivations and then articulate those in my essays," she said.

Review Stanford GSB's evaluation criteria

In addition to considering the advice of successful Stanford MBAs about how they got into the program, be sure to heed the following words of Kirsten Moss, assistant dean of MBA admissions and financial aid at Stanford's Graduate School of Business: "We're looking to build a diverse class of students who are curious and willing to tackle issues or challenges, which go beyond what may be expected of them," explained Moss. "We look for students who have taken initiative, focused on results, engaged others in their efforts, and helped others grow." 

To understand exactly what the Admissions Committee is looking for, Moss points interested applicants toward reviewing the MBA program's evaluation criteria, emphasizing that their students bring a variety of perspectives and experiences to the classroom and community. "We really mean it when we say we don't expect our students to all fit one mold," said Moss. "So the best advice I can give is for candidates to be honest and authentically yourself."

Read more: The ultimate guide to nailing a sales pitch that closes the deal every time

Make sure you really want it

Farooq takes a lot of calls from people applying to business schools, many of whom she says don't know why they are doing it. "The most common answer I get is, 'I was told it will look good on my resume.' Yes, it may, but so will a number of other things."

Based on this experience, Farooq advises applicants to do some soul-searching before applying. "Really spend time understanding yourself — what motivates you, what you are trying to achieve by going to business school," she said. "The admissions team can always distinguish between people who see business school as a key part of their leadership journey and those who are just jumping on the bandwagon."

Fernandes concurs that motivation, as well as the timing of when you decide to apply to Stanford's business school, can play a big factor in the outcome — not because one application window is better than another, but because it's important to apply only when you have a firm grasp on your true motivations. "I think a reason why many people don't get in is maybe because they apply when they aren't ready yet," said Fernandes. "You really have to ask yourself why you want an MBA — and why now?"

SEE ALSO: Here's exactly what it takes to get accepted into Harvard Business School, according to 5 grads and the managing director of admissions

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NOW WATCH: Kylie Jenner is the world's second highest-paid celebrity. Here's how she makes and spends her $1 billion.

• Many of the most recognizable companies started as small side hustles. 
• Some founders were working full-time jobs while building their side hustle. For example, Steve Jobs was working at Atari, while building the Apple I. 
• Major social media companies like, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, started as side projects. 
• Retail companies like Yankee Candle and Under Armour also began as passion projects. 
• Visit INSIDER's home page for more stories.

While side hustles become more and more popular, only a few people have managed to turn their passion projects into multi-million-dollar corporations. 

Some of the most recognizable companies that have raked in millions — or billions — of dollars have started as a small side project ...sometimes in a garage, in a basement, or even at a larger company. 

From Apple to Under Armour, these are the companies that had humble beginnings. 

Before Apple became a massive tech company, it was a side project for its two co-founders.

In 1976, Steve Jobs was working the night shift at Atari, and Steve Wozniak was an engineer at HP. In their spare time, they worked on building a computer in a garage, which became known as Apple I. They made the machine using Atari parts and presented it to Jobs' boss, who eventually declined to invest. 

Over the next couple of decades, Apple revolutionized the tech industry, developing an mp3 player which became the iPod, a media player software which became iTunes, and a cellular device which became the iPhone. 

Facebook started as a dorm room side project for its founders.

In 2003, Harvard freshman Mark Zuckerberg created Facemash, which allowed students to judge other students based on attractiveness. Although the site was taken down in two days, it inspired Zuckerberg and his friends — Eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, and Chris Hughes — to create a social networking site called The Facebook in 2004. Students could log into the site using their Harvard.edu email, and eventually, it expanded to colleges all over the country. Quickly, the passion project turned into a thriving tech business as Facebook expanded outside of college life. 

Today, Facebook is considered one of the largest social media platforms with 1.59 billion daily active users. 

Instagram was a side project for its founder before it became a popular social media platform.

In 2009, Instagram co-founder Kevin Systrom was working at Nextstop.com as a product manager. When he wasn't at his day job, he was teaching himself how to code during the night and weekends. He eventually built Burbn, which was a mobile check-in app, similar to FourSquare but more picture-based. 

Systrom quit his day job and eventually raised $500,000, leading him to hire his co-founder Mike Krieger. In 2010, the pair officially launched Instagram and had 100,000 users in the first week. In 2012, Facebook bought the company for $1 billion. Today, there are 500 million Instagram users. 

Spanx's founder was a saleswoman before creating her shapewear company.

In the late '90s, Sara Blakely was going door-to-door trying to sell fax machines for Danka, an office supply company. When she was getting dressed to go out one night, she decided to cut the feet out of her pantyhose. The results inspired Blakely to turn this intuitive design into a business.

After working her day job, she would spend nights writing her own patent and researching manufacturers. Once she finally landed a hosiery manufacturer, she worked on building a prototype on the nights and weekends. In 2000, Spanx, a woman shape-wear company, was born. 

In 2012, Blakely was named the youngest female self-made billionaire, and today, she is worth $1.1 billion. 

Twitter started as a side project at a very different company.

In 2005, Jack Dorsey started a programming job at Odeo, a platform for podcasts. A year later, the company faltered after Apple allowed podcasts on iTunes. In response, Odeo CEO Evan Williams hosted a hackathon, in which Dorsey created twittr — a site where people could update AIM-like statuses in real-time. Dorsey continued to work on twittr as a side project at Odeo until it was officially launched in July 2006 and renamed Twitter. The following year, it became its own company and Dorsey was named CEO. 

Today, Twitter has become one of the most popular social media platforms with 126 million daily active users. 

Craigslist started as a curated email that the founder used to send to his friends.

In 1995, Craig Newmark sent out an email to his friends, highlighting interesting events around San Francisco. The initial email was sent to 10 to 12 people, but eventually, it spread by word of mouth. The email list started to grow quickly, as Newmark transitioned to a list server and larger website. In 1999, Newmark quit his day job as a programmer and turned Craigslist into a company. 

Craigslist expanded to 700 cities and 70 countries all over the world as the website itself remained simple and under-designed. 

The founder of WeWork was making baby wear when he created the office space company.

Adam Neumann was running Krawlers, a baby clothing company, in Brooklyn when he was looking for ways to make extra cash. Architect Miguel McKelvey worked in the building that Krawlers operated out of, and the two men noticed there were several vacant office spaces in the building. The pair started Green Desk in 2008, which rented out office spaces in that building. They sold that company to the landlord and eventually opened WeWork in 2011 in New York City. 

Today, WeWork has 30,000 clients and plans to operate 100 coworking spaces in New York, Miami, Chicago, Seattle, Los Angeles, Sydney, Melbourne, and Prague, Shanghai and more.

Under Armour's founder was a college football player when he first developed the company.

Kevin Plank was a college football player at the University of Maryland in the '90s. During that time, he said he was fed up with how his cotton shirts stuck to his body when he sweated on the field. He started a side project to develop a shirt that would not soak up the sweat. In 1996, he had his prototype, which used a synthetic base layer. When he graduated college, his side hustle became a business, known as Under Armour, which operated out of his grandmother's basement. Plank found success by sending his products directly to players in the NFL. 

Today, Under Armour is one of the leading companies in sportswear, with its sales reaching $5.2 billion in 2018. 

Yankee Candle was once a teenager's side hustle.

In 1969, 16-year-old Mike Kittredge made a candle out of crayons as a gift for his mom. A neighbor saw the candle and asked Kittredge to make her one for $2. Eventually, Kittredge turned it into a side hustle, operating out of his parent's garage and basement. In 1973, Yankee Candle moved into an old paper mill in Massachusetts and sold the company in 1998 for $500 million. 

Today, Yankee Candle has 500 stores with over 19,000 retailers selling Yankee Candle products, according to Boston.com. 

TheSkimm started as a passion project for its co-founders.

In 2012, Carly Zakin and Danielle Weisberg were working at NBC as associate producers, and they were self-described news junkies. They quickly realized that they wanted to do more in the news industry than their jobs were allowing, so they started a passion project, where they would send a curated news list straight to people's email boxes.

They quit their jobs and focused on this project full time, even though no one was investing. They had $4,000 between them and quickly slipped into credit card debt. But everything was about to change after they released their first email and theSkimm was born. 

Today, theSkimm has seven million subscribers, which include Hillary Clinton and Oprah. 

Before the virtual reality company, OculusVR was a famous business, it was a side project for its founder.

In 2011, Palmer Luckey attended Cal State Long Beach to study journalism, and he was an engineer at USC's Mixed Reality Lab. At the same time, Luckey was developing state-of-the-art virtual reality glasses in his garage that would make waves in the tech industry. In 2012, Luckey dropped out of college and focused on his side project full-time. He named his company OculusVR. The company went on to raise $2.5 million on Kickstarter. In 2014, Facebook bought the company for $2 billion. 

Today, Luckey has left the company to work on a new business, but Facebook is expected to sell 1 million headsets in 2019. 

Imgur's co-founder was a student when he created the photo-sharing site.

In 2009, Alan Schaaf was a student at Ohio University when he set out to build an image uploader that would rival PhotoBucket. The side project took Schaaf two weeks to build and uploaded it to Reddit. The website was named Imgur. In its first year, the site had half a million page views each month. In 2011, Schaaf moved his business to San Francisco and officially became a company. 

Today, Imgur has 300 million monthly active users and a thriving internet community, according to Fast Company. 

The Khan Academy founder was working at a hedge fund when he started an education business.

After his day job at a hedge fund, Sal Khan tutored his cousin through Yahoo Doodle and over the phone in 2004. Soon, he started tutoring more family members online, and his schedule quickly became too hectic. Instead, he recorded videos of himself teaching lessons and uploaded them to YouTube. In 2008, Khan Academy was officially born but he only worked on it in his spare time. It wasn't until 2009 when Khan quit his day job and worked on Khan Academy full time. 

The company went on to receive a $2 million grant from Google and a $1.5 million grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

• A person's body language can reveal a lot about what they're thinking and feeling.
• That's especially true if their nonverbal displays don't match what they're saying out loud.
• For example, a pointed finger with a closed hand can be an attempt at showing dominance, while someone who repeatedly touches their face is probably nervous.
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.
  

Reading other people's body language is tricky business.

If someone is crossing her arms, for example, you could assume that she's closed off, when in fact she's just cold. 

Read more:13 simple ways to get better at small talk

That said, when you notice that a person's nonverbal displays don't quite match up with what she's telling you out loud, it's worth paying extra attention. Or when someone laughs with one too many wrinkles around their eyes, it's likely a sign your joke probably wasn't all that funny to her.

Below, we've rounded up 19 scientific insights into the significance of body language, pulled from Psychology Today, research journals, and a few awesome books.

Read on to find out why you should be cautious if someone's making too much eye contact or has their legs crossed.

SEE ALSO: 8 body language tricks to instantly appear more confident

DON'T MISS: 21 common body language mistakes even smart people make

The shoulder shrug is a universal signal of not knowing what's going on.

According to Barbara Pease and Allan Pease, authors of "The Definitive Book of Body Language," everybody does the shoulder shrug. 

The shrug is a "good example of a universal gesture that is used to show that a person doesn't know or doesn't understand what you are saying," they write.

"It's a multiple gesture that has three main parts," they continue. "Exposed palms to show nothing is being concealed in the hands, hunched shoulders to protect the throat from attack, and raised brow, which is a universal, submissive greeting." 

Open palms are an ancient display of honesty.

When someone swears to tell the truth in a court of law, they put one hand on a religious text and raise their other hand into the air, palm facing whoever they're speaking to.

That's because, the Peases write in "The Definitive Book of Body Language," an open palm has been associated with "truth, honesty, allegiance, and submission" throughout Western history. 

"Just as a dog will expose its throat to show submission or surrender to the victor," they write, "humans use their palms to show that they are unarmed and therefore not a threat."

A lack of crinkles around the eyes suggests a potentially fake smile.

The jury is still out on whether we can tell when someone is faking what scientists call a Duchenne smile. It's the expression we make when we're genuinely experiencing positive emotion.

At one point, researchers believed that making a genuine smile was nearly impossible to do on command. The smile, they said, was all about the crow's-feet around your eyes. When you're smiling joyfully, they crinkle. When you're faking it, they don't. 

If someone's trying to look happy but really isn't, you won't see the wrinkles.

More recently, a study from Northeastern University researchers found that people could do a pretty good job of faking a Duchenne smile, even when they weren't feeling especially happy.

It seems safe to say that if the crinkles aren't there, the person's probably not genuinely happy. But just because the crinkles are there doesn't necessarily mean they're elated.

Raised eyebrows are often a sign of discomfort.

In the same way that real smiles shape the wrinkles around your eyes, University of Massachusetts professor Susan Krauss Whitbourne writes on Psychology Today that worry, surprise, or fear can cause people to raise their eyebrows in discomfort.

So if someone compliments your new hairstyle or outfit with their eyebrows raised, it may not be sincere.

A pointed finger with a closed hand is an attempt at displaying dominance.

If someone is closing their palm and pointing with their index finger, then they're trying to display dominance — though it doesn't always work out. 

"The Palm-Closed-Finger-Pointed is a fist where the pointed finger is used like a symbolic club with which the speaker figuratively beats his listeners into submission," the Peases write. "Subconsciously, it evokes negative feelings in others because it precedes a right overarm blow, a primal move most primates use in a physical attack."

If they mirror your body language, the conversation is probably going well.

When two people are getting along, their postures and movements mirror each other's. When your best friend crosses her legs, you will, too. If you're on a date that's going well, you'll both be making the same goofy hand gestures. 

This is because we mirror each other when we're feeling a connection, says positive psychologist Barbara Fredrickson.

But if they look into your eyes for too long, they might be lying.

In an attempt to avoid looking shifty-eyed, some liars will purposefully hold their gaze a touch too long, so that it's slightly uncomfortable, according to behavioral analyst and body language expert Lillian Glass. 

They may also stand very still and not blink.

Eye contact shows interest — both positive and negative.

When you look someone in the eyes, it sets an arousal state in the body. 

"How that arousal is interpreted, however, depends on the parties involved and the circumstances," writes Claremont McKenna College organizational psychologist Ronald E. Riggio.

"Being stared at by a stranger who appears large or ominous can be seen as a threat and elicit a fear response," he continues. "However, the gaze of a potential sexual partner causes arousal that can be interpreted positively — as a sexual invitation."

An expansive pose signals power and a sense of achievement.

How people hold themselves is a big clue to how they're feeling.

If someone's leaning back and relaxed, they probably feel powerful and in control. In fact, research has found that even people born blind raise their arms in a V-shape when they win a physical competition.

A 'cluster' of gestures shows a real feeling of connection.

Attraction isn't communicated through one signal but a sequence.

Neuropsychologist Marsha Lucas suggests one to watch for: "After making eye contact, she looks down a bit, gathers or otherwise preens her hair, and then looks up at you while her chin is tipped."

Crossed legs are usually a sign of resistance and low receptivity, and are a bad sign in a negotiation.

Out of 2,000 negotiations videotaped by Gerard I. Nierenberg and Henry H. Calero, the authors of "How to Read a Person Like a Book," there wasn't a single settlement when one of the negotiators had their legs crossed. 

"Psychologically, crossed legs signal that a person is mentally, emotionally, and physically closed off," writes psychologist Travis Bradberry — which may mean they're less likely to budge in a negotiation.

A clenched jaw, tightened neck, or furrowed brow shows stress.

All these are "limbic responses" associated with the limbic system in the brain.

"Emotion, spotting and reacting to threats, as well as assuring our survival, are all heavy responsibilities of the limbic system," writes former FBI counterintelligence agent Joe Navarro.

"The bus leaves without us, and we are clenching our jaws, rubbing our necks," he explains. "We are asked to work another weekend, and the orbits of our eyes narrow as our chin lowers."

Humans have been displaying discomfort this way for millions of years, Navarro says.

If they repeatedly touch their face or their hands, they're probably nervous.

Navarro told Business Insider that we've evolved to display nervousness without using any words.

Some of the most common manifestations of our anxiety? Touching your face and rubbing the skin on your hands. Both can be soothing behaviors when you're feeling uncomfortable.

"It's hilarious how often we touch ourselves under stress," Navarro said.

If they're laughing with you, they're probably into you.

If someone is receptive to your humor, they're likely interested in you.

Evolutionary psychologists say that humor — and positive reception to humor — play a pivotal role in human development. They serve as a way of signaling a desire for a relationship, be it platonic or romantic.

Expansive, authoritative postures show leadership.

Whether they're innate or learned, there are a number of signals and behaviors people use when they feel that they're a leader, or at least are trying to convince you that they are.

They include holding an erect posture, walking purposefully, steepling and palm-down hand gestures, and generally open and expansive body postures. 

A shaking leg signals a shaky inner state.

"Your legs are the largest area of your body," University of Massachusetts professor Susan Whitbourne says, "so when they move, it's pretty hard for others not to notice." 

A shaky leg signals anxiety, irritation, or both, she says. 

A slight smile along with direct eye contact might be an attempt at seduction.

Riggio's research suggests that there's a specific type of smile people display when they're trying to act seductive.

He writes in Psychology Today:

"[T]hey typically display positive affect — a slight smile that accompanies direct eye contact, with a slow glance away, but still holding the smile.

"Interestingly, the seductive smile could be accompanied by submissive behavior (tilting the head downward), or dominant behavior — proudly and slowly glancing away."

If the inner corners of their eyebrows don't move up and in, they're probably not as sad as they seem.

Psychologist Paul Ekman uses the term "reliable muscles" for the muscles in the face that you can't contract voluntarily.

In his book "The Tell," psychologist Matthew Hertstein explains how to apply Ekman's research: "If you observe a person expressing sadness both verbally and facially, but the inner corners of his eyebrows are not going up and in, he may not be experiencing sadness at all. He's unable to contract these muscles voluntarily despite his best efforts."

If one side of their face is more active than the other side, they might be faking the emotion.

Hertstein writes: "The vast majority of facial displays of emotion are bilateral — that is, they show up on both sides of the face equally. ... Next time you tell a joke, look to see if her smile is symmetrical when she laughs."

This is an update of an article originally posted by Drake Baer and Max Nisen.

• Math is a useful tool for understanding the world, and there are many ways to make certain tasks easier.
• Here are eight tips for quickly figuring out a tip, saving time doing math in your head, and deciding whether or not to buy a lottery ticket.
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

The worst part of going out to dinner with a group of friends is figuring out who owes what at the end of the night. All too often, once everyone's chipped in, there's either not enough money on the table, or way too much.

When trying to plan for retirement, or figuring out whether to make an investment, one helpful thing to know is how long it will take to double your initial capital.

And when you're considering taking a new job with an annual salary, it might be useful to know how that salary compares with what you'd earn at a job with an hourly pay rate.

Some handy math tricks can help you figure out each of these situations quickly — and without having to resort to pulling out the calculator on your phone. We've assembled eight such tricks below.

Eric Platt and Walt Hickey contributed to earlier versions of this article.

WATCH: We Did The Math: Which iPhone 6 Should You Buy?

Converting your salary to an hourly figure

The trick: Take your salary, drop the last three zeros, and then divide by two.

Example: If you earn $40,000, you're left with $20 an hour.

Maybe you're a salaried employee trying to figure out whether you should take a job that pays by the hour. This trick would certainly help.

This comes from making a couple of assumptions about your working hours and some quick observations about time. There are 52 weeks in a year, so if you're working a 40-hour week for 50 of those weeks, you'll be working 40 x 50 = 2,000 hours in a year. Take your annual salary and divide by those 2,000 hours (equivalently, drop the last three zeros and divide by two), and voilà, you get your hourly rate.

Figuring out sales tax and tips

The trick: If you have a particular percentage tip you're aiming for, and the sales tax for your purchase is on the bill, you can use that tax to save some time in figuring out your target tip.

Assuming an approximately 9% sales tax, as in New York, if you take your pre-tax part of the bill, divide by four, and add this amount to the pre-tax part, you'll be leaving about a 16% tip. If you're feeling more generous, divide by three and add that amount instead, leaving about a 24% tip.

Example: Say your part of the pre-tax bill comes to $18. If you want to leave a 16% tip, divide $18 by four to get $4.50. Add that to your $18 pre-tax cost, and leave a total of $22.50. If you want to leave a larger tip, divide $18 by three to get $6, and combine that with the pre-tax cost to leave a total of $24.

Here's why this works: Dividing the pre-tax bill by four is the same as taking 25% of that amount. That's enough money to cover the 9% sales tax, with 16% leftover for the tip, because 25 - 9 = 16. Similarly, dividing by three gives about 33% of the pre-tax bill, covering the 9% sales tax and a 24% tip, because 33 - 9 = 24.

You can check out similar techniques based on your state and city's sales tax rates here.

How long it'll take to double your investment

The rule of 72: Need an easy way to determine how long it will take to double your investment? Simply divide the number 72 by your projected growth rate.

Example: So, if you're getting a return of 9% per year, it will take about eight years for your investment to double in size, because 72/9 = 8.

The rule of 72 comes from manipulating the basic mathematical formula for calculating compound interest. The exact number you need to divide your growth rate by is actually closer to 69, but 70 or 72 are frequently used for quick mental estimates, because most common single-digit rates of return will divide evenly into one of these.

How long it'll take to triple your investment

The rule of 115: If you're more inclined to triple your investment, because you're not as risk averse (or perhaps your time horizon is just a tad bit further out), simply divide 115 or 110 by your growth rate. This will give you the amount of time it will take to triple your investment.

Example: So, if you're getting a return of 10% per year, it will take about 11 1/2 years for your investment to triple in size.

This works for basically the same reason the Rule of 72 works, except that we're aiming to triple rather than double our initial investment.

Deciding whether or not to buy a lottery ticket

The trick: Multiply each possible prize by that prize's probability, and add up all those products. Then subtract the price of a ticket, times the probability of winning nothing. If the result is below zero, the ticket is definitely a bad purchase. If it's above zero, it might be a viable "investment," but there may be other factors to consider.

This process gives the expected value of the lottery ticket, and is a useful tool in analyzing gambling games like a lottery.

Example: In March, the Powerball jackpot hit $625 million. Despite that eye-popping headline prize, an analysis factoring the possible impact of taxes suggested that the expected value of a ticket would be negative, making the ticket a poor investment.

Squaring numbers in your head

The trick: Say you have a number, x, that you want to square.

First, find the difference between x and the nearest multiple of 10, and call that difference d.

Then, multiply (x-d) and (x+d). This should be much easier, because one of the numbers will be a multiple of 10 (based on how we defined d). After multiplying (x-d) and (x+d), just add d², and you have your square. 

Example: Say you want to find the square of 77. The closest multiple of 10 is 80, so d will be 80 - 77 = 3. Then 77 + 3 = 80, and 77 - 3 = 74.

Multiplying these together is pretty straightforward: 74 x 80 = 70 x 80 + 4 x 80 = 5,600 + 320 = 5920. Add in the 3² = 9, and we get 5929 as our square of 77.

Once you get the hang of this method, it's a good bit quicker and easier than trying to attack 77² head on.

Multiplying by 11

The trick: When multiplying a figure by 11, follow this pattern: leave the last and first digits alone, then sum each and every pair of digits next to each other (this makes the most sense when seen in example):

Examples: 4,281 x 11 becomes the following digits: (4)(4+2),(2+8)(8+1)(1) or 47,091.

When the sum of a pair is greater than 10, carry that digit to the next left pair (as seen above, where 2+8 was 10).

Let's try something harder. 9,621,576,521 x 11 becomes: (9)(9+6),(6+2)(2+1)(1+5),(5+7)(7+6)(6+5),(5+2)(2+1)(1) or 105,837,341,731.

This is a neat trick of our base 10 place value system. Because 11 = 10 + 1, multiplying a number by 11 is the same as multiplying that number by 10 and then adding it back to itself. Multiplying a number by 10 means we shift all our digits one place over to the left and stick a zero on the end, so when we add this to the original number, we get exactly the paring up of digits that we saw.

Asset allocation by age

This one really isn't a math trick, so much as it is a good general rule.

The trick: Don't have a financial planner to walk you through asset allocation? A simple way to find out is to subtract your age from the number 120; the number remaining is the percentage of your portfolio that should be in stocks.

Example: For instance, if you're 50, you should be keeping 70% of your holdings in stocks with the remaining 30 percent in fixed income products.

The basic idea here is that younger investors who have decades of working ahead of them can take on more risk than people closer to retirement.

• Teachers are joining a nationwide campaign to crowdfund money for school supplies.
• Celebrities like Khloé Kardashian and country singer Casey Donahew have helped spread the word. 
• GoFundMe says teachers ask for school-supply money on the platform each year. Public investment in K-12 education has dwindled in the last decade, as has teacher pay. 
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

Teachers across the country are taking to social media to help pay for school supplies using GoFundMe, and stars like Khloé Kardashian, country singer Casey Donahew, and YouTuber Jeffree Star are joining the cause. 

Courtney Jones, an elementary-school teacher from Tyler, Texas, launched the trending #clearthelists campaign on Twitter in July. The movement started in closed Facebook groups for teachers helping each other pay for school supplies, but Jones encouraged them to broadcast their efforts publicly.

"The movement started as a way for teachers to support each other in a meaningful way," Jones told Business Insider in an email. "I want to raise awareness for the dismal funding for not only teachers' salaries, but for our resources to support our students."

Read more:THEN AND NOW: Here are all the ways being a public-school teacher has changed in the last 50 years

In the same way Americans are turning to sites like GoFundMe to pay for medical costs, decreased government investment in K-12 education is now leading public-school teachers to crowdsource the cash they need for school supplies. Many teachers' Amazon wish lists are full of classroom basics: chalk, dry-erase markers, snacks, crayons, books, and more. 

"Every year, teachers need help buying supplies, spending hundreds of their own dollars for the students," Huyenchau Vu, an elementary school teacher from Houston, told Business Insider. Vu joined the Facebook movement to help pay for her school supplies as the group was just forming.

"Now, with Courtney, they all decided to speak up," she added, "but I believe this only solved the short-term problem of education funding." 

Teachers around the country are asking for help paying for basic school supplies — and celebrities are getting involved

Jones created the Facebook group Support a Teacher on July 1, and it garnered 42,000 members within just a month. The group was meant for teachers to help each other pay for school supplies using GoFundMe pages or Amazon wish lists.

Jones urged teachers to move their Amazon lists to Twitter using the hashtag #clearthelists for greater visibility. The movement really took off when it came to the attention of country star Casey Donahew, who sent a tweet about it on August 3 (Business Insider has reached out to Donahew for comment). Jeffree Star and Khloé Kardashian joined soon afterward.

While the campaign has picked up traction, the activity itself isn't new: teachers set up GoFundMe accounts to pay for supplies every school year, the company told Business Insider. GoFundMe spokesperson Bobby Whithorne added that education is the fastest-growing category on their site. 

"We all know schools across America are chronically underfunded," Whithorne said in a statement. "Far too often the burden falls on teachers to make up for gaps in funding."

The movement highlights the dismal lack of money in public-school education

Paying for school supplies has become the norm for teachers in the US. Around 94% of public-school teachers report spending their own money on supplies, a 2018 Department of Education survey found. Teachers reported spending $479 of their own money on average each year, according to the DOE survey.

Part of the reason why teachers have needed to fund their supplies is because of nationwide cuts to K-12 funding. State funding dropped $166 per student from 2008 to 2016, a dip that sparked nationwide teacher protests last year. Today, nearly half of states still spend less on public schools than before the recession, according to the Center on Budget Policy and Priorities. 

Pay for educators has also decreased. Teachers make less on average in inflation-adjusted dollars than they did in 1990, TIME Magazine reported using Department of Education data. Teachers make 19% less than other professions that require a bachelor's degree, according to the Economic Policy Institute think tank.

Jones said her dissatisfaction with how little the country pays teachers motivated her to start the campaign. She said many teachers spend time outside of work hours honing skills and developing new teaching methods. 

"There are places in the country who take care of their teachers by providing a great salary, but in most cities, I feel as though we can do much better," Jones said.

SEE ALSO: THEN AND NOW: Here are all the ways being a public-school teacher has changed in the last 50 years

Join the conversation about this story »

NOW WATCH: Kylie Jenner is the world's second highest-paid celebrity. Here's how she makes and spends her $1 billion.

• Entrepreneurship is hard enough. But when you present your startup's pitch deck, you have to flaunt your design skills too.
• We asked successful entrepreneurs and investors how to do it right.
• Their tips included: Explain why now is the best time to launch your business, and don't forget to say what your company is actually doing.
• We've also included a video in which the CEO of billion-dollar startup Carta walks us through his Series A and Series E pitch decks.
• Visit BusinessInsider.com for more stories.

They tell you not to judge a book by its cover — but investors will absolutely be using your pitch deck to evaluate your company's potential, so you'll want to make a stellar impression.

To that end, we asked a series of successful entrepreneurs and investors for their best advice on creating an impressive pitch deck:

• Justin McLeod, the founder and CEO of Hinge, a dating app.
• Kim Taylor, the founder and CEO of Cluster, which recruits for advanced manufacturing roles.
• Christina Carbonell and Galyn Bernard, the cofounders of Primary, a children's clothing brand.
• Megan O'Connor, the cofounder and CEO of Clark, a tutoring-software company.
• Jen Rubio, the cofounder, president, and chief brand officer of Away, a travel brand; Steph Korey is the CEO.
• Masha Drokova, the founder and general partner of Day One Ventures, an early-stage capital firm.
• Anu Duggal, the founding partner at Female Founders Fund, which invests in early-stage technology companies run by women.

Their main takeaways? Keep it simple, and include the information that's most relevant to each investor.

At the bottom of this article, you'll also find the recording of a webinar in which Henry Ward, the CEO of billion-dollar startup Carta, walks us through his Series A and Series E pitch decks. Carta has so far raised a total of $448 million.

Read on for a practical guide to pitch decks and some impressive examples.

Customize your deck to the specific investor you're pitching.

You might envision walking into a room full of investors, requesting $1 million for your company, and walking out a few minutes later, triumphant.

That's not typically how things work.

McLeod said it's more common (and more effective) to form a relationship with the investor before making your pitch. That includes asking the investor what kind of information they want to see in a deck and which numbers are important to them.

Prepare multiple documents that tell your company's story.

Taylor recommended creating different versions of your deck. Specifically, you'll need a short intro deck, as well as one for in-person meetings and another for follow-up calls.

Verify investors before sending them confidential information.

Taylor warned founders not to include financial information in their intro deck and "blindly send it to people without qualifying them." She recommended DocSend for this purpose.

Make sure to visually represent your brand identity.

Ideally, by the time you're putting together a deck, "you have enough of a vision for the brand that you're building" that you can visually represent that brand, Carbonell said. Too often she sees other founders' decks "either not well designed or generically designed," and missing their "brand personality," she said.

Taylor reminded founders to design their title slide and not to leave it as an afterthought.

"First impressions matter!" she said.

Don't go overboard with the information you present.

Keep your pitch deck concise.

A few entrepreneurs mentioned that they'd used the venture-capital firm Sequoia Capital's pitch-deck template, which includes 10 slides, each with one key point.

And Taylor said she uses Guy Kawasaki's 10/20/30 rule: "A pitch should have 10 slides, last no more than 20 minutes, and contain no font smaller than 30 points."

Remember that your deck should tell a story.

Your deck should outline the most important points about your business — not everything about your business.

As Bernard put it, your deck should "tell a story" so that investors "can understand where you think the business is going to go."

It goes back to knowing which numbers and metrics matter most to each investor. "If you throw all of your numbers into your deck, it may not tell a story," Bernard said, and the investors "may not latch on to the right point."

Rubio said founders should "paint a specific picture of the one (or maybe two!) biggest opportunities that you're working to leverage, and then focus your pitch on how you're going to approach them."

"Otherwise, it's too easy to give the impression that you're not clear on your purpose and the value you're uniquely bringing to the table."

Pretend you're creating a deck for your parents.

Carbonell said one of the best pieces of advice she'd heard on this topic is to pretend you're presenting the deck to your parents.

In other words, don't be afraid to "brag a little bit" — your parents want you to succeed — and "give them a little bit of context for some things," since they might not be experts in the space like you are.

Carbonell said this mindset had helped her spot any holes in the Primary pitch deck.

Include just one point per slide.

When you're creating a deck to use during in-person meetings, avoid the temptation to cram every slide with information.

"Each slide should have one cohesive, clear point, and it should not take a lot of text to make that point," O'Connor said.

Remember you'll be talking during the presentation, she said, "so you don't need everything you're going to say also on the slide."

Use one slide to explain who's on the team.

"In the early stages, a VC is investing in the person (or team), not the company," O'Connor said. "They have to believe that you are the one that can accomplish the mission above anyone else."

That's why she recommends including a blurb on the entire team and their professional backgrounds. During the pitch, you can talk through your story as the founder.

Read more:A founder who sold her first company for $25 million and landed Mark Cuban as an investor (twice) shares exactly what to say to pass a job interview at any startup

Include your bio if it's relevant.

Taylor said that "people remember narrative and why you are doing something." If your personal or professional background is relevant to the company, include that in your deck.

For example, Taylor grew up in an advanced-manufacturing hub in Wisconsin, so she includes that point when she's pitching Cluster.

Don't forget to say what your company is actually doing.

Yes, it sounds obvious. But the Primary founders said it's easy to get so deep in the weeds that you forget to tell investors what the purpose of your company is.

"Occasionally, we are so close to what we're doing, what our actual product is and what we're offering, that we forget to say it," Bernard said.

Read more: A CEO who launched her company 14 years ago says too many founders have it all backward

Outline both your grand vision and your concrete execution.

Your pitch deck should address two points, McLeod said: "Here's the grand vision of where this is going to go and why this is a big idea" and "We're going to really nail this one narrow thing really well."

When McLeod was pitching Hinge, he emphasized the global vision of changing dating culture. But he also showed that he had gotten people using the app in the first place.

Address the market landscape and competition.

Duggal said one common mistake she sees in pitch decks is "not addressing competition or figuring out the market landscape."

"When we think about investing in a company, we want to understand — that's great that you have an interesting idea or you spotted something that has the potential to be an exciting business — but we also want to understand what is already in the market," she said.

Explain why now is the best time to launch your business.

Don't just talk about the problem and your solution, Carbonell said. Also answer the question "Why now?"

"It can be very helpful in persuading an investor not only that you have a good idea, but why now is the right time to pursue it and why it hasn't been done before," she added.

Drokova said: "A deck is all about why [the business] should exist today and that you're ready and capable to execute it. With Day One Ventures, it was about our insights into communications and PR, and seeing how much it helps early-stage companies grow in size and valuation, and how it assists with recruiting top talent."

Highlight the cost of customer acquisition.

O'Connor said investors are always interested in hearing about your cost to acquire a customer. "At the very least," she said, "you need to be able to show that your CAC will decrease over time, and what your plan is for making that possible at scale."

Include whatever data you can to inspire confidence.

Early on, Korey said, "you might not have enough data to successfully show anticipated traction." In that case, "focus on other metrics that you can share," including qualitative feedback from your initial research.

"When the hard data doesn't exist yet, there are other ways to prove that there's an appetite for what you're building and a path towards success," Korey said.

Specify how you're going to spend the money you raise.

Investors want to know what you'll be doing with their cash.

"You need to be more specific than just letting the investors know you're going to build the company and should be able to speak to things like headcount, office space, vendor agreements, R&D, and any other big expenditures for your business," O'Connor said.

Highlight your plans for growth.

Duggal said every deck should include a five-year growth plan.

Tell investors how long it will take to get their money back.

The "payback period" is how long it will take for investors to recover the cost of their investment.

"Investors are going to give your company money because they believe they can eventually make a profit off of it," O'Connor said. "So in addition to clearly articulating how that will be possible, you'll also need to share a specific timeline of when it's going to happen."

Read more:A startup founder who was rejected 148 times by VCs made these 2 small changes to her pitch, and she's since raised nearly $30 million

Tweak the deck based on the feedback you get from each investor.

When the Primary founders started pitching investors, they realized they needed to make their deck even simpler.

"Not all of the points that we were making were coming across as clearly as we wanted to," Carbonell said. So they updated the slides for the rest of their investor meetings.

Now watch the video below, in which the CEO of unicorn startup Carta dissects his Series A and Series E pitch decks:

Looking for more guidance on pitch decks? Check out these decks that helped startups raise millions.

SEE ALSO: The first-time founder's ultimate guide to pitching a VC

Join the conversation about this story »

NOW WATCH: Stewart Butterfield, co-founder of Slack and Flickr, says 2 beliefs have brought him the greatest success in life

• According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, some medical specialties have higher salaries than others. 
• General practitioners, including family doctors and pediatricians, are among the highest-paid doctors. 
• Dentists, orthodontists, and prosthodontists also have high salaries. 
• Anesthesiologists are paid more than any other type of doctor. 
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

We tend to assume everyone sporting a lab coat and stethoscope is bringing home the big bucks — and that's certainly more true for doctors in some medical specialties than it is for doctors in others.

For instance, the average optometrist makes $119,980 a year, while the average surgeon earns double that.

Here are the top 15 highest-paying jobs for medical doctors, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics: 

SEE ALSO: The 27 jobs that are most damaging to your health

15. Optometrists

Average annual income:$119,980

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +27%

What they do: Optometrists examine the eyes and other parts of the visual system; diagnose and treat visual problems and manage diseases, injuries, and other disorders of the eyes; and prescribe eyeglasses or contact lenses to patients.

14. Podiatrists

Average annual income: $148,220

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +14%

What they do: Podiatrists provide medical care for people with foot, ankle, and lower-leg problems; they diagnose illnesses; treat injuries; and perform surgery involving the lower extremities.

13. General dentists

Average annual income: $175,840

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +18%

What they do: Dentists diagnose and treat problems with patients' teeth, gums, and related parts of the mouth. They also provide advice for taking care of the teeth and gums.

12. Dentists (all other specialists)

Average annual income: $178,800

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +18%

What they do: "All other specialists" are dentists who are not listed separately. 

11. General pediatricians

Average annual income: $183,240

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +14%

What they do: Pediatricians diagnose, treat, and help prevent children's diseases and injuries.

10. Prosthodontists

Average annual income: $191,400

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +18% 

What they do: Prosthodontists construct oral prostheses to replace missing teeth and other oral structures to correct deformations of the mouth and jaws.

9. General internists

Average annual income: $196,490

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +14%

What they do: General internists diagnose and provide nonsurgical treatment of diseases and injuries of internal organ systems.

8. Physicians or surgeons (all other)

Average annual income: $203,880

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +14%

What they do: "All other" physicians and surgeons are those not listed separately. They typically provide medical care and/or perform surgical procedures on patients. 

7. Family and general practitioners

Average annual income: $211,780

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +14%

What they do: Family and general practitioners diagnose, treat, and help prevent diseases and injuries that commonly occur in the general population. 

6. Psychiatrists

Average annual income: $220,380

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +14%

What they do: Psychiatrists diagnose, treat, and help prevent disorders of the mind.

5. Orthodontists

Average annual income: $225,760

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +18%

What they do: Orthodontists examine, diagnose, and treat dental misalignments and oral-cavity anomalies; and design and fabricate appliances to realign teeth and jaws.

4. Obstetricians and gynecologists

Average annual income: $238,320

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +14%

What they do: Obstetricians and gynecologists provide medical care related to pregnancy or childbirth, and diagnose, treat, and help prevent diseases that affect women, particularly those affecting the reproductive system. 

3. Oral and maxillofacial surgeons

Average annual income: $242,370

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +18%

What they do: Oral and maxillofacial surgeons perform surgery and related procedures on the hard and soft tissues of the oral and maxillofacial regions to treat diseases, injuries, or defects.

2. Surgeons

Average annual income: $255,110

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +14%

What they do: Surgeons treat diseases, injuries, and deformities by invasive, minimally invasive, or noninvasive surgical methods, such as using instruments, appliances, or by manual manipulation.

1. Anesthesiologists

Average annual income: $267,020

Growth outlook (2014-2024): +14%

What they do: Anesthesiologists administer anesthetics prior to, during, or after surgery, or other medical procedures.

• Read more:
• How much money 11 types of doctors actually make
• Here's how much money doctors make across the US, from brain surgeons to oncologists
• Doctors and surgeons once again command the highest pay in the US. Here's how much their coworkers at hospitals make.

• Working long hours and throwing yourself fully into your career can end up hurting your marriage.
• Your spouse can easily get frustrated, annoyed, or hurt by your over-commitment to your job. 
• Here are 15 ways your job could be causing you to put a strain on your marriage. 
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

Maybe you're a workaholic and spend 80 hours a week at the office. Perhaps you come home every night wanting to complain about your micromanaging boss or annoying coworkers. Whatever the culprit, our careers often affect our personal relationships — and in extreme cases, they can even ruin marriages.

"Because we spend the majority of our waking hours Monday through Friday at the office, our jobs tend to easily spill into our personal lives," says Lynn Taylor, a national workplace expert, leadership coach, and author of "Tame Your Terrible Office Tyrant: How to Manage Childish Boss Behavior and Thrive in Your Job."

"And it's natural, for instance, to come home wanting to vent," she says, "but this kind of thing can wear thin on your partner over time, as they may feel helpless."

She says that frequently bringing the office into your personal life can be stressful for both of you, and it's important to know if your job is affecting your marriage.

"You want to recognize red flags early that your work is impacting your marriage, so you aren't blindsided by your spouse before it's too late to make any changes," adds Michael Kerr, an international business speaker and author of "The Humor Advantage."

Here are 15 ways your job is ruining your marriage:

SEE ALSO: 3 subtle differences between workaholics and high performers

Putting work priorities ahead of your relationship

If you find yourself opting out of activities you would normally engage in with your spouse, such as going to a movie, visiting friends or just enjoying time together, you could be placing undue pressure on the relationship, Taylor says.

Being too tired from work to spend time with your spouse

If work is sucking all of your energy out of you, your partner will be affected and take note.

Constantly turning to your spouse as your career therapist

If you find yourself constantly seeking advice from your spouse on your next "move" at work, you could be hurting your marriage, Taylor says.

Consuming your life and all your conversations

If you literally have nothing to talk about with your spouse other than work, then this is a bad sign.

"If you have trouble compartmentalizing work and personal life, you likely will go into discussions about people and projects without even realizing," Taylor says.

It's a habit that you have to make a conscious effort to kick.

Arriving late to important personal events or frequently cancel because of work

This can create a slow build-up of resentment from your spouse and create the impression you are choosing your work intentionally over your personal commitments, says Kerr.

Preventing your spouse from talking about their day

If your spouse feels that they're taking the brunt of your office worries, then they may withdraw and seem unusually quiet, not wanting to add to the drama, Taylor says. "Or, they may feel that sharing their own struggles is futile, because the topic will ultimately bounce back to your office dilemmas."

Having less patience with your spouse, and vice versa

If your spouse if starting to resent your work, then they may not always open up about it because they want to be supportive of you — but the resentment might manifest itself in other areas, such as being less patient or more irritable, Kerr says.  

Not having the energy to socialize

If you're beginning to feel that your mind is in some far-off place, then your spouse probably detects it.

"If you're preoccupied with work once you get home, or even into the weekend, you may feel that you need to keep to yourself," says Taylor. "You may deprive yourself of normal social activities with your partner."

Arguing more with your spouse

If you are carrying home stress with you from the office, then you may become more irritable and end up taking it out on your partner in totally unrelated areas, Kerr says.

Arguing about new things

If there's some sort of change to your work life — maybe a new role, a new boss, a new salary — and you're suddenly fighting with your spouse about things you never argued about before, it's probably no coincidence.

Spending little time with your spouse because you're always busy with work

If you're staying at the office later at night, going in on weekends more frequently, or bringing work home with you more and more, then these things will likely cut into the personal time that you'd normally spend with your partner. And, chances are, this will strain the relationship.

Noticing he or she doesn't listen to you when you speak anymore

A spouse who's sick of hearing about you "feeling trapped" at work or that you were admonished again might offer less eye contact or keep busy with another activity as you speak to mitigate the stress, says Taylor.

Starting to making more sacrifices to make everyone happy

Are you getting up two hours earlier each morning so you can come home earlier at night? Are you giving up personal hobbies or exercise in order to achieve your personal and work goals? This may eventually cause you to break.

Realizing that you are happier at work than you are at home, and feel more engaged with your work colleagues than with your spouse

If you look forward to the end of the weekend or even stay an extra day away on your business trip because you realize it's easier or less stressful to be at work than to be at home, you've got a problem on your hands.

Causing your spouse to use sarcasm to convey their true feelings

If your partner says things like "I wonder if the children will recognize you when you're back from this trip?" then it may be a sign that they're fed up.

• Read more:
• People who feel drained after work might blame it on overflowing inboxes and endless to-do lists, but there could be a more insidious factor at play
• 12 things science says predict divorce
• The 12 biggest money-related reasons people get divorced
• The average cost of getting divorced is $15,000 in the US — but here's why it can be much higher

• Olivia O'Neill, a management professor at George Mason University's School of Business, spent decades researching why women don't make it to the highest levels within organizations.
• Her research supports the notion that women are tasked with more than their male counterparts, leading to stress and early burnout.
• O'Neill pointed out the factors that contribute to the "invisible tasks" that make up that burden in an interview with Business Insider.
• Click here for more BI Prime stories.

People are always stopping by Olivia O'Neill's office to talk about their personal lives.

A management professor at George Mason University School of Business in Virginia, O'Neill tells Business Insider she doesn't mind helping when needed ("I have taken on some really lonely colleagues in the past," she adds). But whenever the revolving door of coworkers looking for a sympathetic ear increases, so does her workload.

"Sometimes I really need the time that I'm not listening to my colleague's problems to answer emails," O'Neill said. That realization led her to notice something else: no one was asking male colleagues for emotional support.

O'Neill calls this a clear example of an "invisible task," or actions women are expected to fulfill that men rarely shoulder. From taking notes at meetings to cleaning out the kitchen coffee pot, these tiny tasks eventually pile up — and it's at the root of why women in business experience more burnout than their male colleagues.

How invisible tasks lead to overload

Earlier this year, the World Health Organization labeled work-related burnout a medical condition, lending urgency to the way managers handle their employees' workload. This is doubly true for female employees, as research shows women are more likely to suffer from on-the-job burnout than men. (Other studies point out that women of color have it even worse, as they tend to be especially saddled with menial office tasks like organizing group lunches.)

O'Neill looked at burnout as a factor for why a class of female Berkeley MBAs dropped out of their careers at higher rates than their male counterparts. 

The men and women who were most assertive from the class went into high-intensity, high-risk, high-reward jos that required confidence and yielded substantial paychecks. Four years after graduation, the women who went into these industries tended to be successful.

However, the picture changed four years after that. O'Neill noted that the same successful women were dropping out, and that they exhibited higher symptoms of burnout.

"There's so much pressure for women to reach the C-Suite," she said. "Pushing people without considering the societal factors around them is the perfect recipe for burnout."

Starting a conversation on workplace stress is the best way to minimize pressure

Women already experience a host of invisible tasks in their everyday lives. Speaking with Business Insider earlier this year, Melinda Gates said women perform a total of seven years' worth of unpaid labor (or work that isn't for leisure) over their lifetime, mostly in the home.

"It's really important to say that our economies have been built on the back of this unpaid labor," Gates said, "and sometimes that unpaid labor is invisible in a certain way because in the United States we don't think about that 90 minutes of work that a woman does at home."

When these tasks spill over into the workplace, women can begin to feel a sense of overload, which O'Neill calls a symptom of burnout.

Managers can help alleviate these symptoms by simply listening to employees when they bring these problems to the forefront. Gallup research estimates that workers who have managers who are willing to listen to their work-related needs are 62% less likely to be burned out. 

That's why a conversation with a higher-up when an employee feels the beginnings of burnout is a good place to start. Beyond listening, managers should take the time to ensure that employees are doing meaningful work. Employees who are given tasks based on their strengths are 57% less likely to frequently experience burnout, according to Gallup. 

Make sure to look within

O'Neill advises women to look at their own actions when they realize they're taking on more than they can handle. What's holding you back from being more assertive?

"Gently and compassionately say 'no' to invisible tasks," she said, "or signal nonverbally that you're unavailable – in a kind way, and in a way that the other person can understand."

Humor is another strategy O'Neill points to as a way to prevent burnout, because it allows women to be assertive while not being as abrasive. Women should be careful using this tactic, though, as a March 2019 study suggests that women who use humor may be viewed with less regard than women who don't use humor.

Regardless of how you combat burnout and keep going in your career, O'Neill says there's one thing to keep in mind: "Every person has a toolbox, their people superpowers."

SEE ALSO: A 32-year-old CFO explains how a novel as old as she is has helped her figure out most of her big career choices

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